makeup history research paper

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• Danielle Sulikowski 2 &
• Danielle Wagstaff 3  

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Adornments ; Cosmetics ; Makeup

Makeup is a general term that refers to visible cosmetic products that are normally applied to the face with the goal of increasing facial attractiveness. Makeup is primarily worn by women. Cosmetics is a broader term referring to beauty products. It includes makeup as well as skin care creams, hair care products, perfumes, and personal hygiene products.

History of Makeup

Evidence for the use of pigments applied cosmetically to female face dates back at least 5000 years, with the discovery of a clay female head bearing red pigment on the lips and cheeks at the Niuheliang burial site in China (dated to the Hongshan Neolithic period, LPICRA, 1986 ; Mai et al., 2016 ). Evidence of makeup applied for the express purpose of increasing a woman’s attractiveness to prospective mates is at least as old as Ancient Rome. The Roman poet Publius Ovidius Naso (nee Ovid, 43 BC – 18 AD), encouraged women to apply cosmetics to boost their...

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Aguinaldo, E. R., & Peissig, J. J. (2019). More makeup, more attractiveness? Self-applied heavy cosmetics yield higher attractiveness ratings than light cosmetics. Journal of Vision, 19 (10) 227c-227c. https://doi.org/10.1167/19.10.227c

Aguinaldo, E. R., & Peissig, J. J. (2021). Who’s Behind the Makeup? The Effects of Varying Levels of Cosmetics Application on Perceptions of Facial Attractiveness, Competence, and Sociosexuality. Frontiers in Psychology, 12 , 661006–661006. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.661006

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Liaoning Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology (LPICRA). (1986). Liaoning niuheliang hongshan wenhua nushenmiao yu jishizhong fajue jianbao. (Preliminary report on the excavation of ‘Goddess Temple’ and stone tombs in Niuheliang, Liaoning Province). Wenwu, 8 , 1–17. (in Chinese).

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Mafra, A. L., Varella, M. A. C., Defelipe, R. P., Anchieta, N. M., de Almeida, C. A. G., & Valentova, J. V. (2020). Makeup usage in women as a tactic to attract mates and compete with rivals. Personality and Individual Differences, 163 , 110042.

Mai, H., Yang, Y., Abuduresule, I., Li, W., Hu, X., & Wang, C. (2016). Characterization of cosmetic sticks at Xiaohe Cemetery in early Bronze age Xinjiang, China. Scientific Reports, 6 (1), 18939.

Mileva, V. R., Jones, A. L., Russell, R., & Little, A. C. (2016). Sex differences in the perceived dominance and prestige of women with and without cosmetics. Perception, 45 (10), 1166–1183. https://doi.org/10.1177/0301006616652053

Pflüger, L. S., Oberzaucher, E., Katina, S., Holzleitner, I. J., & Grammer, K. (2012). Cues to fertility: Perceived attractiveness and facial shape predict reproductive success. Evolution and Human Behavior, 33 (6), 708–714.

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Sulikowski, D., Ensor, M., & Wagstaff, D. (2022). Mate-value moderates the function of make-up as a signal of intrasexual aggression. Personality and Individual Differences, 185 , 111275.

Wagstaff, D. L. (2018). Comparing mating motivations, social processes, and personality as predictors of women’s cosmetics use. Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences, 12 , 367–380. https://doi.org/10.1037/ebs0000119

Wagstaff, D. L., & Sulikowski, D. (2022). The impact of sexual strategies, social comparison, and Instagram use on makeup purchasing intentions. Evolutionary Behavioral Sciences . https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/ebs0000285

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School of Psychology, Charles Sturt University, Bathurst, NSW, Australia

Danielle Sulikowski

Institute of Health and Wellbeing, Federation University, Mount Helen, VIC, Australia

Danielle Wagstaff

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Department of Psychology, Oakland University, ROCHESTER, MN, USA

Todd K. Shackelford

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Department of Psychology, Oakland University, Rochester, MI, USA

Oakland University, Rochester, MI, USA

Gavin Vance

Department of Psychology, Oakland University, Rochester Hills, MI, USA

Madeleine K. Meehan

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Sulikowski, D., Wagstaff, D. (2023). Makeup. In: Shackelford, T.K. (eds) Encyclopedia of Sexual Psychology and Behavior. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-08956-5_106-1

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Cosmetic History and Makeup Studies Network

The Cosmetic History and Makeup Studies Network is an interdisciplinary and international research group that connects researchers working on the history and study of makeup and beauty culture across different societies and time periods.

Founded in 2021 by co-convenors, Lucy Jane Santos and Hillary Belzer the network acts as a point of contact for anyone with an academic interest in cosmetic history and beauty culture.

The network advocates and offers a platform for research that is both critical of beauty studies and recognises its nuanced history and continued potential as a tool for systematic change. Work that centres diverse voices and experiences in its exploration of beauty, that engages with the history of beauty techniques and cosmetics across multiple fields, and that applies innovative methodological approaches to the field is encouraged.

Our members consist of academics, independent scholars, postgraduates but we welcome anyone with a serious interest in understanding the role of cosmetics in history and contemporary culture.

If you would like to join this network please email  [email protected]  with details of your interest in the topic.

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“Behind the Façade: Motivations for Cosmetic Usage by Women”

Methodology, results and discussion, author’s note, declaration of conflicting interests, cite article, share options, information, rights and permissions, metrics and citations, figures and tables.

“Multiple Selves”—Conformity, Impression Management, and Judgment

The public versus the private persona.

There isn’t really the option of not wearing makeup without looking [un]prepared for the world ( White British Visual Effects Artist, aged 26) I use cosmetics … to show I care about making an effort with how I look to others (British Office worker, aged 44)

Only times in my life I have [used cosmetics has] been for things like on-stage performances, media appearances, etc with somebody else doing it and me not having any choice (White agendered (biologically female), disabled and unable to work, aged 45)

If I am going outside for any reason; uni, work, with friends, doctors, shopping etc, I will also wear makeup. However, if I am just going to a family members house or to a friend’s house I will not always wear makeup…I cannot really leave the house unless I have all of my makeup on (White British student, aged 21) In some occasions I do feel like it is essential to me, ‘specially if I’m going to a place where makeup is a must (Aged 23)

I often call makeup ‘war paint’ because even if I’m feeling low or not ready to face the world, a little bit of makeup gives me the confidence to get on with my day (White British Student and part-time waitress, aged 20) …for some unknown reason putting your make up on makes you feel ready to take on the day’s challenges (White British Experience manager, aged 32)

There seems to be an unspoken rule from both men and other women, that if a woman doesn’t wear make-up then she’s somehow ‘let herself go’ or can’t be bothered. It implies a lack of pride in one’s appearance (again, which I disagree with) (White British mature student, aged 47) I do like how it gives me more confidence when I’m out, and I think people are less likely to judge how I look negatively (Aged 21)

If you want people (not people who know you well) to take you seriously (Asian Office worker, aged 21.)

I don’t always use them, but in new situations or when meeting new people I would try to cover the worst of my vitiligo patches (White British student, mid-thirties) …strangers seeing me without it makes me uncomfortable (White student, aged 20)

Whilst at home, I never bother wearing make-up, but when going out (to work, uni. or socially) I invariably do (White British mature student, aged 47)

I don’t think I consciously decide to wear make up for a reason for meeting people, it just kind of goes with getting dressed up when wearing nicer clothes (Caucasian Travel Agent, aged 28)

Professionalism and the workplace

Cosmetics are my ‘work face.’ I put on make-up when I go to work (even in lockdown) and I take on my work persona… I would not feel professional without them… I like to mark the difference between the work ‘me’ and the non-work ‘me (White British Occupation Director, aged 56)

…show other people, employers etc. that you care about your appearance (White European student, aged 21)

Mate attraction

Started using when I was 15 as … had started to be interested in the opposite sex and thought it would help! (White British Operations Director, aged 37)

Cosmetics also gives me more confidence when it comes to talking to guys (Asian-American student, aged 19) It also gives me confidence when I’m going on a night out and definitely helps with attracting others (White graduate, aged 21)

Year 7 …. was also the age when boys started to become an interest and [you thought you’d get] interest from them if you wore it! (British apprentice engineer, aged 23) I used to use cosmetics mainly to attract men in my younger days (up until the age of about 21) … now I feel like I wear make up more for myself…(White British Visual Effects Artist, aged 26)

I’d say my influence on cosmetic use for attracting the opposite sex, changed the more relationships I had where partners complimented me on my attractiveness when not wearing cosmetics (White British Office worker, aged 44) I’m in a long term relationship so it is not so much to do with attracting others (Caucasian Retail worker, aged 23 – Q5)

Enhancement and Confidence

I don’t use cosmetics every day, … I think I mostly use it to feel more attractive (German student and part-time social worker, aged 22)

I feel prettier when I wear makeup, it makes me more confident and I feel less embarrassed when I go out with makeup on (White British, working in retail, aged 23) I feel it enhances my natural features, and allows me to be confident in day to day life (British apprentice engineer, aged 23)

I cannot really leave the house unless I have all of my makeup on because I can notice the difference or I feel that I do not look as good unless I have all of it on (White British student, aged 21) I think it’s more about enhancement and concealment. I would not feel confident facing people without it. I think quite the opposite, I’d feel self-conscious (White British Counsellor, aged 46)

I also wear it especially when I have spots etc to cover up (Aged 21)

I started using cosmetics to cover redness and blemishes on my skin (20 – Q1) Wearing make-up makes me look healthier (White British Experience Manager, aged 32)

I like how they improve my features, smooth out wrinkles (White British Operations Director, aged 37)

I reject the idea of using makeup to meet a beauty standard (White American graduate, aged 22)

Psychological camouflage

It’s just how I feel when I wear it and it makes me feel better (White British Experience manager, aged 32)

If I’m feeling particularly self-conscious or nervous about something to do with being looked at (e.g. doing a presentation/ having a photo taken/ being filmed) I’ll wear a full face just because it makes me feel better (White, working in Higher Education, aged 23) I don’t wear it often now but if I do it’s usually to hide insecurities (White British working in retail, aged 32) I often call makeup ‘war paint’ because even if I’m feeling low or not ready to face the world, a little bit of makeup gives me the confidence to get on with my day (White British student and part-time waitress, aged 20)

I wish I had the confidence to not wear them. I don’t even wear much make-up, but what I do wear is enough to change my appearance enough that others will notice when I’m bare faced (White British mature student, aged 47)

Fun, Creativity, and Well-being

Fun, creativity, and self-expression.

I like to use cosmetics … for fun and decoration (White British Office worker, aged 44)

I love how fun and relaxing it is to apply cosmetics (Asian-American student, aged 19) I find them fun to use (White British student, aged 19)

I enjoy the application of makeup as well as wearing it as I am quite creative. I like to see the difference in my face with and without makeup (White British Customer Services Advisor, aged 42)

I like the way you can be creative and express yourself through them (White British Headteacher, aged 42) …for me makeup is a statement piece like big jewellery or bright clothes (White American graduate, aged 22)

I don’t like to be very creative, I feel it attracts more attention and I’d rather stay the same (British apprentice engineer, aged 23)

I used to cheer me up when I was struggling with depression so it has definitely become a part of my self care (White, aged 19)

it’s a part of my morning routine that is soothing to start the day (Caucasian Travel Agent, aged 28)

Adverse consequences of usage

Years ago, experimenting with make-up was fun, but now it seems to have turned into a chore (White British mature student, aged 47)

I don’t like the pressure of perfection that the industry [is] causing (White British Experience manager, aged 32)

I am addicted and I don’t see myself abandoning them any time soon. It’s a complex relationship (White British student, aged 21)

Signification and identity

Identity construction, maintenance, or reconstruction.

[It’s] less about a fashion look and more about my identity…. (No demographic information provided)

As a young teacher I feel it makes me look more mature and find parents treat me differently if they think I look young. (White British teacher, aged 27) Started wearing makeup at 16. This was to look older in my first job. (White British civil servant, aged 50)

So many outlets that scream ‘don’t wear this if you’re over 30!,’ ‘How to look 10 years younger!’. The message is that if you don’t project a certain image, then you should be shunned. (White British mature student, aged 47)

My reason was probably peer influenced, everyone was wearing it, I was not any good but I was just glad to be involved (Mixed race student, aged 21) Started using cosmetics in my teens because of …. (possibly) peer pressure; everyone else was using them, and those who didn’t were somehow considered less mature (White British mature student, aged 47).

I first started using make up when I was in year 7 (?) - my older sister was wearing make-up which I thought was cool and mature (British apprentice engineer, aged 23) I first started using cosmetics as a young teenager. I saw my older sister and my Mum using cosmetics and I wanted to seem more grown up (White British Occupation Director, aged 56)

I do [think] my views of cosmetics has been heavily influenced by growing up alongside the rise in social media (White British teacher, aged 27)

Change over the lifespan

I feel like I look healthier …less tired, more dewy / glowing skin… (20 – Q1) [Cosmetics are] only absolutely essential when there is a dramatic change in appearance i.e ageing (White British Beauty Therapist, aged 27)

It has become more important the older I’ve gotten, unsure why (White student, aged 20)

I believe there was a time where cosmetics were important to me to a point where I felt uncomfortable without them. I feel I have a healthier relationship to them now (White, cisgender female, aged 19)

When I was much younger, I wore cosmetics more to be attractive to males, and I wore more of it. Now that I am much older, it is not as important. I don’t wear it solely to feel attractive to others and I don’t wear as much anymore (African-American Doctoral student, aged 51)

Cosmetics is essential for weddings and religious events because nearly every female wears makeup in these events…. (Asian Office worker, aged 24) Special social occasions feels essential for use of cosmetics, weddings etc. (White British office worker, aged 44)

Special occasions like a wedding - makes others feel that you value them if you make an effort (White British Headteacher, aged 42)

I do not generally think that cosmetics are essential for “life events” (like graduation, anniversaries, weddings etc.) but for me they would be. (White, cisgender female, aged 19)

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Who’s behind the makeup the effects of varying levels of cosmetics application on perceptions of facial attractiveness, competence, and sociosexuality.

• Department of Psychology, California State University, Fullerton, Fullerton, CA, United States

Research has demonstrated a positive effect of makeup on facial attractiveness ( Cash et al., 1989 ; Russell, 2003 ; Etcoff et al., 2011 ). Makeup has also been found to influence social perceptions ( Etcoff et al., 2011 ; Klatt et al., 2016 ). While researchers have typically compared faces with makeup to faces without makeup, we propose that perceived effects will differ based on the amount of makeup that is applied. To test the effects of varying levels of makeup on perceived facial attractiveness, competence, and sociosexuality, participants assessed 35 faces with no makeup, light makeup, and heavy makeup; makeup was self-applied by participants, not applied by a makeup artist or the experimenter. Participants rated faces with makeup (either light or heavy) as more competent than those without makeup. In addition, participants rated faces with heavy makeup as significantly higher in attractiveness and sociosexuality than faces with light makeup. These results differ from previous research findings that faces with light makeup (applied by professional makeup artists) are perceived as most attractive. Our results suggest that when makeup is self-applied, faces with heavy makeup are perceived as more attractive and sociosexual than faces with light makeup, and faces with any level of makeup are rated as more competent.

Introduction

Women in the United States are estimated to spend approximately $3,756 annually on their physical appearance and $225,360 during their lifetime ( Haynes, 2018 ). This high level of spending may be linked to the positive physical and social effects that makeup produces for women. Over the past few decades, many research studies have confirmed that makeup increases facial attractiveness ( Cash et al., 1989 ; Russell, 2003 , 2009 ; Etcoff et al., 2011 ). Studies have shown that when both male and female participants are asked to rate female faces on attractiveness, faces with makeup are rated as significantly more attractive than those without makeup ( Cash et al., 1989 ; Etcoff et al., 2011 ). Recent research has gone beyond facial attractiveness and examined how makeup or cosmetics affect peoples’ perceptions of competence, warmth, and trustworthiness ( Etcoff et al., 2011 ; Klatt et al., 2016 ). Increases in facial attractiveness have been linked to a variety of beneficial social implications.

Facial Attractiveness

Some have proposed that facial attractiveness is determined solely by culture; however, research suggests a biological basis for attractiveness as well ( Berry, 2000 ). Studies on beauty and attraction across cultures have revealed that people from different cultures typically agree on the attractiveness of faces ( Cunningham et al., 1995 ; Langlois et al., 2000 ; Rhodes et al., 2001 ). Additionally, researchers have found that preferences for certain facial characteristics emerge early in development, prior to the periods wherein values and norms from one’s culture are adopted ( Geldart et al., 1999 ; Rubenstein et al., 1999 ; Slater et al., 2000 ). These findings provide evidence that contradicts the idea that beauty is based solely on cultural conventions. If this assertion was true, then current findings should indicate significant differences in perceptions of attractiveness across cultures and the development of facial preferences at times where culture begins to influence one’s identity and perspective. Because preferences affect mate choice, Rhodes et al. (2005) suggested that these preferences for certain characteristics may have evolved through sexual selection, whereby traits enhance reproductive success.

Sexual dimorphism refers to feminine traits in female faces and masculine traits in male faces ( Johnston and Franklin, 1993 ), and is likely related to the biological perception of attractiveness. Male faces and female faces diverge at puberty, making sex-respective traits especially prominent. In males, testosterone stimulates the growth of the jaw, cheekbones, brow ridges, center of the face (from the brow to the bottom of the nose), and facial hair. In females, the growth of male-centered traits is inhibited by estrogen, and estrogen has been linked to increased lip size ( Thornhill and Møller, 1997 ). Because sexual dimorphisms increase at puberty, sexually dimorphic traits are suggested to signal sexual maturity and reproductive potential.

Makeup and Facial Attractiveness

Revealing a sexual dimorphism in facial coloration, Nestor and Tarr (2008) found that on average, females have lighter skin than males, who are typically darker and ruddier. The researchers also found that there is a difference in facial coloration across different racial and ethnic groups. Further research has noted that faces are characterized by a typical sexually dimorphic pattern of darker features and lighter skin that varies by sex ( Sinha, 2002 ). For example, Russell (2009) demonstrated that the difference in luminance between facial features (eyes and mouth) and skin is sexually dimorphic. Terming this difference, “facial contrast,” Russell found that increasing the contrast of the eyes and mouth in computer-manipulated faces leads to higher ratings of attractiveness for females, but lower ratings for males ( Russell, 2003 ). Russell’s findings are consistent with historical uses of makeup by females to enhance female attractiveness by darkening the eyes and mouth relative to the surrounding skin ( Corson, 2003 ; Russell, 2009 ). This normative makeup practice may work to exaggerate the sex difference in facial contrast.

In addition to its impact on facial contrast, makeup can also alter the apparent size of facial features (e.g., making eyes appear larger). Research examining the impact of makeup on perceptions of eye size demonstrated that individually, eyeliner, mascara. and eye shadow make eyes appear larger, thus increasing the sexually dimorphic trait of larger eyes among females ( Matsushita et al., 2015 ; Morikawa et al., 2015 ). Importantly, however, these forms of makeup only increased perceived eye size when used independent of one another (i.e., when combined eyeliner and mascara do not make eyes appear larger). The researchers posit that the induction of visual illusions serves as one avenue by which makeup and cosmetics alter facial appearance.

Attractiveness and Social Interaction

Through its positive effect on facial attractiveness, makeup has also been implicated in producing inflated social perceptions and more favorable social interactions. In a study directly examining how makeup affects ratings of attractiveness, competence, likeability, and trustworthiness, researchers presented participants with photos of female faces with minimal, moderate, or dramatic makeup ( Etcoff et al., 2011 ). The researchers found that when faces were shown for 250 ms, makeup had significant positive effects on all outcomes. These results suggest that facial attractiveness has a significant positive effect on judgments of competence, likeability, and trustworthiness. Another study conducted by Klatt et al. (2016) , examined the influence of different styling combinations on the evaluation of women’s leadership abilities. In presenting participants with photos of women in varied combinations of clothing (skirt/pants), jewelry (with/without jewelry), makeup, (with/without makeup) and hairstyle (loose hair/braid), the researchers found that women wearing makeup, pants, or jewelry were rated as more competent than women without makeup, wearing skirts, or not wearing jewelry. Results also indicated that the combination of loose hair and no makeup was perceived as the warmest, and overall women with loose hair were more likely to be hired than those with braids. Separate from these inflated perceptions associated with makeup, makeup has also been linked to perceptions of more unrestricted sexuality, or a willingness to engage in uncommitted sexual relationships ( Osborn, 1996 ; Mileva et al., 2016 ; Batres et al., 2018 ).

In addition to its perceptual effects, facial attractiveness has also been found to significantly influence social interactions. Research on the interactions between mothers and their firstborn infants found that in comparison to mothers of less attractive infants, mothers of more attractive infants displayed greater affection and playfulness toward their infants ( Langlois et al., 1995 ). With regard to the workplace, it has also been found that physically attractive men and women earn approximately 10–15 percent more than unattractive men and women. Furthermore, physically attractive individuals are expected to have more prestigious occupations than those of lesser attractiveness ( Dion et al., 1972 ; Hamermesh and Biddle, 1993 ). The same study found that participants perceived attractive individuals as making more competent spouses and having better overall prospects for happy, social, and professional lives than less attractive individuals ( Dion et al., 1972 ).

Current Study

Although present research on facial attractiveness provides great insight on makeup’s enhancing effects, the methodology employed by most studies tests a relatively narrow set of conditions. Because many of the studies on makeup involve professional makeup artists, it is difficult to discern whether their application techniques accurately reflect those that typical women use on a day-to-day basis. Another limitation posed by several of the studies examining differential ratings of perceived competence and success is the focus on managerial and business-executive positions. While business positions are an important point of examination because of the particularly low occupation rates for females, we would argue that perceptions made in the academic setting, a much earlier point in a woman’s career, may be equally influential on their success. To address these issues, the current study seeks to advance the facial attractiveness literature through examination of the effects of makeup on facial attractiveness using different face stimuli than in previous studies (self-applied makeup in college-age participants) and examining the social implications of makeup use for women in a university setting. To accomplish the goals of the study, we collected facial stimuli through a process by which participants applied their own makeup. These stimuli were then used to evaluate the impact of makeup on perceived facial attractiveness, competence and sociosexuality.

We tested attractiveness to determine whether self-applied light or heavy was rated as more attractive compared to wearing no makeup. We were interested in looking at this as previous data have been somewhat mixed ( Etcoff et al., 2011 ; Tagai et al., 2016 ). Although previous work commonly focuses on warmth and competence together, we decided to focus only on competence because our interest is in the academic setting where we believe competence is more critical for the future career success of females. Sczesny and Kühnen (2004) note that the influence of physical appearance on perceived competence is complex and involves not only gender stereotypes, but also biases based on sexual dimorphisms. We were interested in testing how ratings of sociosexuality are influenced by varying levels of makeup due to the implications of perceptions of sociosexuality on things such as sexual harassment ( Kennair and Bendixen, 2012 ). From a practical point of view, understanding how makeup influences perceptions of attractiveness, competence, and sociosexuality may help women decide how to present themselves in different settings.

Based on previous research findings, we anticipate that the results of this project will replicate previous studies that have shown that makeup has a significant effect on perceived facial attractiveness, competence, and sociosexuality. Our more ecologically valid self-applied makeup application procedure may lead to results different from research using professional makeup artists to apply makeup. We also predict that varying levels of makeup will differ in their effects on the responses of participants across these different types of judgments.

In this study we compared female faces with no makeup, self-applied light makeup, and self-applied heavy makeup. Participants rated faces on attractiveness, competence, and sociosexuality so we could measure a range of traits that have been found to relate to makeup use and attractiveness. The goal was to determine if self-applied makeup leads to similar findings compared to makeup applied by a professional makeup artist ( Batres et al., 2018 ; Etcoff et al., 2011 ; Osborn, 1996 ) or the experimenter ( Killian et al., 2018 ). A portion of this data was presented at the Annual Meeting of the Vision Sciences Society ( Aguinaldo and Peissig, 2019 ).

Undergraduate women were photographed with varying levels of makeup (no makeup, light makeup, heavy makeup) across the span of two sessions. Each subject participated in two, 30-min data collection sessions. Sessions comprised of participants being photographed with no makeup first, then either light makeup or heavy makeup. Prior to attending each session, participants were asked to bring all necessary makeup supplies for applying their own makeup. All photographs were taken using a standardized procedure, holding constant the lighting and distance of the camera (Canon EOS 700 D with EF-S 18–55 mm; Tokyo, Japan). Participants were asked to look directly at the camera with a neutral facial expression.

In the first session, the primary researcher briefly explained the study to participants before providing them with the consent form and offering to answer any questions, should they arise. Following consent, participants were verbally asked if they currently had any makeup on or if they were using any beauty enhancement products (e.g., Latisse–an eyelash growth enhancer or eyelash extensions), for the purposes of ensuring consistency among the facial stimuli collected. All participants were provided one face wipe to clean their face prior to being photographed, to ensure there was no residual makeup on their faces in the no makeup condition. The first photograph taken in the session was of participants with no makeup. Subsequently, participants were asked to apply what they would consider to be “light makeup,” or makeup that they would wear on a daily basis. After completing their makeup application participants were photographed once more.

The second session followed the same procedure as the first: participants were asked if they were currently wearing makeup, and provided a face wipe to clean their face prior to being photographed. The first photograph taken was of participants with no makeup on. Subsequently, participants were asked to apply what they would consider to be “heavy makeup,” or makeup that they would wear on a night out or special occasion. After completing their makeup application, participants were photographed once more, then given a debriefing form that provided them with further information about the experiment and the contact information of the primary investigator. We split the makeup application phase into two separate sessions to avoid issues with applying then removing makeup. We were concerned that there would be residue left from the previous makeup application and that the rubbing required for removal might lead to skin irritation or discoloration.

Stimuli were reviewed for completeness and picture quality, and standardized using Adobe Photoshop (standardized photographs for no makeup, light makeup, and heavy makeup applications; see Figure 1 ). A total of six participants were removed due to either missing the second session or unusable photographs. Unusable photographs resulted from participants not looking directly at the camera, having expressions that did not appear neutral, or images that were blurry. Thus, the final set of images contained high quality images across all conditions, resulting in a final number of 35 remaining participants. We chose to take two photographs of participants with no makeup (in both the first and second session) for consistency across sessions (we took one photo with and without makeup for each session). For this particular study we chose to use only one of the two no makeup images, to keep the number of judgments (attractiveness, competence, and sociosexuality) equal across the three makeup conditions. We chose the final single no makeup image to use for each face by visually inspecting the images and choosing whichever one appeared to have slightly better quality and head positioning, or by randomly choosing one. Similar to previous work, a uniform oval mask (1.2 inches high by 0.9 inches wide with Photoshop) was applied to the faces in order to prevent unintended effects from confounding variables such as background, hair, or face contour ( Tagai et al., 2016 ; Killian et al., 2018 ). This also ensured that participants focused on the interior features of the face that were influenced by makeup, rather than external features. We decided on a final number of 35 different individuals for the face stimuli as this was a few more than our previous attractiveness study that used 30 images ( Killian et al., 2018 ). These participants ranged in age from 18 to 27 with an average age of 19.44 (SD = 2.12). Half of the participants identified as Hispanic/Latino ( n = 17, 48.57%), while others identified as Asian ( n = 8, 22.86%), Pacific Islander ( n = 3, 8.57%), Biracial/Multiracial ( n = 3, 8.57%), White ( n = 2, 5.71%), Other ( n = 1, 2.86%), and one participant did not respond ( n = 1, 2.86%).

Figure 1. Example of Facial Stimuli (No Makeup, Light Makeup, and Heavy Makeup).

Following the collection of facial stimuli, the faces were independently rated by another group of participants ( n = 28) to ensure that no facial stimuli were significantly more or less attractive than any other stimuli. These participants were shown facial stimuli from the 35 different individual females and asked to rate the faces presented on facial attractiveness using a 1–7 Likert scale, with 1 being very unattractive and 7 being very attractive. Only the no makeup version of the faces was shown for this rating. Results from the rating study revealed that participant ratings for each of the facial stimuli were within two standard deviations of the overall mean attractiveness ratings ( M = 3.56, SD = 0.66). Given the absence of any minor or major outliers, all facial stimuli were used for the experiment.

We quantitatively measured for contrast differences in the no makeup, light makeup, and heavy makeup conditions. Our measurement was based on that used by Russell (2003 , 2009) , by using the Michelson contrast formula to calculate a facial contrast value (C F ) for the 35 faces in each of the three conditions. We found that the mean C F value was lowest for faces with no makeup ( M = 0.213), light makeup faces had a slightly higher mean C F value ( M = 0.227), and the heavy makeup faces had the highest mean C F value ( M = 0.273). Paired t -tests indicated that the facial contrast value difference between the heavy makeup and no makeup was significant ( t (102) = −4.26; p < 0.0001). The difference between the heavy makeup and the light makeup images was also statistically significant ( t (102) = −3.23; p = 0.0016). However, the facial contrast value difference between the light makeup and no makeup images was not significant ( t (102) = −1.02; p > 0.05).

The computer-based experiment was created and administered using SuperLab 5 software 1 . The program was run on three 21-inch, 2013 iMacs (Apple Incorporated, Cupertino, CA, United States).

Demographics Survey

The survey was administered through the online survey platform, Qualtrics 2 . Survey questions gathered demographic information and assessed positive and negative attitudes toward makeup use.

Experiment Participants

The experiment was run several months after the face stimuli were collected, reducing the probability that participants would be familiar with individuals in the face stimulus set. In addition, both groups of participants were recruited primarily from sections of the introduction to psychology course, which are mostly first year students and include both majors and non-majors. Thus, the participants were very unlikely to have encountered the students from whom the faces were collected. A total of 69 students were recruited through the CSUF Psychology Department human subject pool. Individuals were awarded course credit for their participation. Participants were predominantly female ( n = 44, 64%) with a smaller number of males ( n = 22, 32%), one non-binary, and two participants who did not report their gender. Participants ranged in age from 18 to 53 with an average age of 19.97 (SD = 4.55). A third of participants identified as Hispanic/Latino ( n = 24, 34.78%), while another third identified as Asian/Pacific Islander ( n = 24, 34.78%). The remainder reported themselves as White/European ( n = 10, 14.49%), Biracial/Multiracial ( n = 6, 8.70%), Middle Eastern ( n = 4, 5.80%), and Black ( n = 1, 1.45%).

Subjects participated in a SuperLab experiment in which they were presented with the standardized facial stimuli. They responded using an RB-840 response keypad (Cedrus Corporation, San Pedro, CA, United States), which includes eight response buttons; only seven buttons were used in this experiment. The participants were shown the labeled-response keypad specific to their condition, pressed any key to proceed, and then viewed a 500 ms fixation cross, followed by the face image, along with an image of the keypad with the forced choice responses labeled (1–7 and what each response corresponded to depending on condition); the keypad image appeared below the face image. Following Etcoff et al. (2011) , participants were allowed to view the face image and keypad response image until they responded. Each of the 69 participants in the experiment viewed the 35 individuals in three different forms: no makeup, light makeup, and heavy makeup. These 105 stimuli were completely randomized within each test session. Because students who participated in the experiment came from the same university as those who were used as stimuli, on their completion of the experiment, those who rated the stimuli were asked verbally if they personally knew any of the students photographed. No participants reported knowing any of the individuals photographed as stimuli. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups (i.e., Facial Attractiveness, Competence, Sociosexuality), indicating which face judgment task they would do. Numbers of participants differed slightly across groups because participants were recruited until the deadline for data collection for the semester. In the end we were left with slightly unequal numbers across groups (24/22/23). We decided to keep all participants rather than discard any data.

Twenty-four participants in the facial attractiveness group were asked to rate the faces presented on facial attractiveness using a 1–7 Likert scale with 1 being very unattractive and 7 being very attractive.

Twenty-two participants in the competence group were asked to rate the faces presented on perceived competence using a 1–7 Likert scale with 1 being very incompetent and 7 being very competent.

Sociosexuality

Twenty-three participants in the sociosexuality group were asked to rate the faces presented on their sociosexuality. They rated how likely they believed the person would be to have casual sex, using a 1–7 Likert scale with 1 being very unlikely and 7 being very likely.

Separate cross-classified multilevel models were constructed to determine the predictive value of Makeup Application (no makeup, light makeup, heavy makeup) for Attractiveness, Competence, and Sociosexuality.

Attractiveness

A cross-classified multilevel model predicting ratings of Attractiveness by Makeup Application (no makeup, light makeup, heavy makeup) was created using the Heavy Makeup stimuli as the reference group. Thus, coefficients in the No Makeup and Light Makeup stimuli groups compared attractiveness ratings to those in the Heavy Makeup stimuli groups. The variability in attractiveness ratings across participants and stimuli as well as the variability in the effect of makeup on attractiveness ratings across participants and stimuli were included in the model as random effects. The item Makeup had a significant impact on the Attractiveness ratings of the participants, χ 2 (6) = 1865.80, p < 0.001. Participants’ predicted Attractiveness ratings are equal to 3.53 + 0.25 (Makeup Application). Participants’ average Attractiveness ratings increased by 0.25 for each increase in Makeup Application ( Table 1 ). Different from other statistical approaches that would only use the average of participants’ attractiveness ratings across stimuli, our cross-classified multilevel model’s consideration of variance across participants and stimuli produces a more accurate measure and subsequent interpretation of makeup’s effect on participants’ perceptions of attractiveness.

Table 1. Parameter estimates for multilevel model predicting Attractiveness ratings from Makeup Application.

Our Tukey’s post hoc analysis revealed that participant’s Attractiveness ratings were significantly higher for the heavy makeup application ( M = 3.95) than for the light makeup application ( M = 3.77, b = −0.19, p < 0.05). Additionally, participant’s Attractiveness ratings were significantly higher for the light makeup ( b = −0.3, p < 0.001) and heavy makeup applications ( b = −0.49, p < 0.001) than the no makeup application ( M = 3.48; see Figure 2 ). A post hoc power analysis indicated that the power for this attractiveness experiment was 0.74.

Figure 2. Mean Attractiveness Ratings by Makeup Application (error bars represent 95% confidence intervals).

A cross-classified multilevel model predicting ratings of Competence by Makeup Application (no makeup, light makeup, heavy makeup) was created using the Heavy Makeup stimuli as the reference group. Thus, coefficients in the No Makeup and Light Makeup stimuli groups compared competence ratings to those in the Heavy Makeup stimuli groups. The variability in competence ratings across participants and stimuli as well as the variability in the effect of makeup on competence ratings across participants and stimuli were included in the model as random effects. The item Makeup had a significant impact on the Competence ratings of the participants, χ 2 (6) = 1161.42, p < 0.001. Participants’ predicted Competence ratings are equal to 4.17 + 0.08 (Makeup Application). Participants’ average Competence ratings increased by 0.08 for each increase in Makeup Application ( Table 2 ). Different from other statistical approaches that would only use the average of participants’ competence ratings across stimuli, our cross-classified multilevel model’s consideration of variance across participants and stimuli produces a more accurate measure and subsequent interpretation of makeup’s effect on participants’ perceptions of competence.

Table 2. Parameter estimates for multilevel model predicting Competence ratings from Makeup Application.

Our Tukey’s post hoc analysis revealed that participant’s Competence ratings were significantly higher for the light makeup ( M = 4.29, b = −0.15, p < 0.05) and heavy makeup applications ( M = 4.3, b = −0.15, p < 0.05) than for the no makeup application ( M = 4.14; see Figure 3 ). A post hoc power analysis indicated that the power for this attractiveness experiment was 0.70.

Figure 3. Mean Competence Ratings by Makeup Application (error bars represent 95% confidence intervals).

A cross-classified multilevel model predicting ratings of Sociosexuality by Makeup Application (no makeup, light makeup, heavy makeup) was created using the Heavy Makeup stimuli as the reference group. Thus, coefficients in the No Makeup and Light Makeup stimuli groups compared sociosexuality ratings to those in the Heavy Makeup stimuli groups. The variability in sociosexuality ratings across participants and stimuli as well as the variability in the effect of makeup on sociosexuality ratings across participants and stimuli were included in the model as random effects. The item Makeup had a significant impact on the Sociosexuality ratings of the participants, χ 2 (6) = 828.89, p < 0.001. Participants’ predicted Sociosexuality ratings are equal to 3.87 + 0.52 (Makeup Application). Participants’ average Sociosexuality ratings increased by 0.52 for each increase in Makeup Application ( Table 3 ). Different from other statistical approaches that would only use the average of participants’ sociosexuality ratings across stimuli, our cross-classified multilevel model’s consideration of variance across participants and stimuli produces a more accurate measure and subsequent interpretation of makeup’s effect on participants’ perceptions of sociosexuality.

Table 3. Parameter estimates for multilevel model predicting Sociosexuality ratings from Makeup Application.

Our Tukey’s post hoc analysis revealed that participant’s Sociosexuality ratings were significantly higher for the heavy makeup application ( M = 4.39) than for the light makeup application ( M = 3.99, b = −0.39, p < 0.001). Additionally, participant’s Sociosexuality ratings were significantly higher for the light makeup ( b = −0.65, p < 0.001) and heavy makeup applications ( b = −1.04, p < 0.001) than the no makeup application ( M = 3.34; see Figure 4 ). A post hoc power analysis indicated that the power for this attractiveness experiment was 0.72.

Figure 4. Mean Sociosexuality Ratings by Makeup Application (error bars represent 95% confidence intervals).

Summary of Findings

In our investigation of makeup’s influence on perceived facial attractiveness, competence, and sociosexuality, we found that, as predicted, makeup had a significant effect on ratings for all three measures. Additionally, we found that no makeup, light makeup, and heavy makeup application significantly differed in their effects on perceived facial attractiveness, and sociosexuality. For competence judgments, we found that both the light and heavy makeup applications differed from the no makeup condition, but light and heavy makeup application did not differ from each other.

Faces with light makeup were rated significantly more attractive than faces with no makeup and faces with heavy makeup were rated significantly more attractive than both no makeup and light makeup faces. Overall, faces with heavy makeup were rated as most attractive.

These results are consistent with work from Etcoff et al. (2011) which demonstrated higher attractiveness and competence ratings for heavy (glamorous and professional) makeup compared to light (natural) makeup. However, the findings differ from other research in which faces with light makeup yielded higher attractiveness ratings than faces with no makeup or heavy makeup ( Tagai et al., 2016 ). While these contrasting findings might suggest differences in participants’ perceptions of attractiveness, we instead posit that the different results may be due to distinct methodological techniques used in how researchers created their facial stimuli. In both previous studies, light makeup and heavy makeup facial stimuli were created using professional makeup artists. Despite both research teams using professional makeup artists, they reported different results with seemingly equivalent makeup application conditions. It might be that the makeup artists differed in the amount of makeup they applied, or the particular techniques use. Although having a professional makeup artist apply the makeup allows for the standardization of makeup application across a set of facial stimuli, it may not accurately reflect the makeup that typical women use on a day-to-day basis. We consider our procedure of having participants self-apply light and heavy makeup for facial stimuli more ecologically valid, and a strength of our study (although the variability among individual makeup application may also be considered a weakness when compared to the consistency offered by professional makeup artists). Our finding that heavy makeup faces yield the highest attractiveness ratings more accurately reflects self-applied makeup in everyday life. Thus, our data suggest that when women apply their own makeup, rather than have their makeup applied by a professional makeup artist, heavy makeup is considered more attractive than light makeup. Another possibility is that in some cases the light makeup applied by professional makeup artists more closely resembles self-applied heavy makeup. To test this possibility and investigate other differences between makeup application among professional makeup artists and average makeup wearers, however, more research is needed, ideally using quantitative measures of makeup to compare across different types of makeup application.

While faces with light makeup and heavy makeup each yielded significantly higher competence ratings than faces with no makeup, they did not significantly differ from each other. In their work examining the effects of makeup on perceptions of competence, Klatt et al. (2016) found that faces with makeup were rated higher on competence than faces without makeup; however, they did not vary makeup application (i.e., light vs. heavy makeup). Although the degree of makeup application affects perception of attractiveness and sociosexuality, there may be no such effect on perceptions of competence. In the case of competence, Tsankova and Kappas (2016) explain that skin smoothing makeup may indirectly impact perception through signaling an attention to detail and subsequently greater potential competence. Our work extends other research on the effects of makeup on perceived competence through the use of a college-aged sample. As previously mentioned, much of the current work on this topic has examined this relationship in business-level settings, using middle-aged women as facial stimuli ( Klatt et al., 2016 ). Our work demonstrates a similar effect at an earlier stage in women’s careers.

Faces with light makeup received significantly higher sociosexuality ratings (rated as significantly more likely to have “casual” sex with multiple partners) than faces with no makeup and faces with heavy makeup received significantly higher sociosexuality ratings than both no makeup and light makeup faces. Overall, faces with heavy makeup were rated as the most likely to have “casual” sex with multiple partners. These results extend recent work, in which researchers found that faces with makeup were perceived as more sociosexual than the same faces without makeup ( Batres et al., 2018 ). Previous research has suggested that this increase in perceived sociosexuality may be due to makeup serving as a potential cue to availability ( Guéguen, 2008 ). Our findings suggest that in addition to differences in perceived sociosexuality between no makeup and makeup faces, faces with heavy makeup are perceived as more sociosexual than faces with light makeup. The amount of makeup may be perceived as signal of sociosexual behavior that may or may not be related to the actual wearer’s intentions.

We found support for our proposal that makeup would have significant effects on perceptions of facial attractiveness, competence, and sociosexuality. Ratings of facial attractiveness and sociosexuality were highest for faces with heavy makeup. Ratings of competence for faces with light makeup and heavy makeup were both higher than ratings for faces with no makeup, but there were no differences between faces with light makeup and heavy makeup. Our results suggest that self-applied heavy makeup will provide more positive results for attractiveness judgments compared to self-applied light makeup, a finding that is counter to the advice often given in popular media. It is usually suggested that “less is more” and that lighter makeup is more attractive ( Doyle, 2019 ; Almanza and Young, 2020 ). Our data show that people preferred the look of a heavier makeup application, at least in the conditions we tested. In contrast, the heavier makeup also led to perceptions of greater sociosexuality, but did not increase perceptions of competence. Research showing greater potential for harassment for those rated as having higher sociosexuality ( Kennair and Bendixen, 2012 ) suggest that wearing heavy makeup may also have negative consequences. Thus, this study presents a more complex picture of makeup use for women, in which the amount of makeup a woman chooses to wear affects a variety of visual and social perceptions.

This study significantly expands our knowledge of how makeup use affects perceptions of others. Through advancing this literature, we are able to increase the societal understanding of why makeup influences social perception of women. A better understanding of these issues may help us increase well-being and success.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics Statement

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by California State University, Fullerton Institutional Review Board. The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study. Written informed consent was obtained from the individual(s) for the publication of any potentially identifiable images or data included in this article.

Author Contributions

EA developed the research idea, created the study, and collected the data, with help from JP. EA was also responsible for writing the manuscript, with input and revisions contributed by JP. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

This work was supported by a Maximizing Access to Research Careers grant to CSUF from the National Institutes of Health (2T34GM008612-23).

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

We thank Jessica Tessler for help with statistical analyses. We would like to Hina Habib for her assistance with the image contrast analysis.

• ^ https://www.cedrus.com/superlab/
• ^ https://www.qualtrics.com/

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Keywords : makeup, cosmetics, sociosexuality, competence, attractiveness, facial attractiveness

Citation: Aguinaldo ER and Peissig JJ (2021) Who’s Behind the Makeup? The Effects of Varying Levels of Cosmetics Application on Perceptions of Facial Attractiveness, Competence, and Sociosexuality. Front. Psychol. 12:661006. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.661006

Received: 30 January 2021; Accepted: 12 May 2021; Published: 17 June 2021.

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Copyright © 2021 Aguinaldo and Peissig. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Erick R. Aguinaldo, [email protected]

† ORCID: Erick R. Aguinaldo, orcid.org/0000-0002-5040-8472 ; Jessie J. Peissig, orcid.org/0000-0001-8381-1199

‡ Present address: Erick R. Aguinaldo, Department of Psychology and Women’s and Gender Studies, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States

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JSmol Viewer

A review of moisturizers; history, preparation, characterization and applications.

1. Introduction

2. history of moisturizer, 3. ingredients.

4. Methods of Preparation

4.1. preparation of oil in water (o/w) moisturizer, 4.2. preparation of water in oil (w/o) moisturizer, 5. characterization, 5.1. determination of ph, 5.2. organoleptic properties/physical appearance, 5.3. centrifugation test, 5.4. mechanical vibration test, 5.5. spreadability, 5.6. saponification value, 5.7. density, 5.8. light test, 5.9. acid value, 5.10. viscosity, 5.11. homogeneity, 5.12. dye test, 5.13. after feeling test, 5.14. type of smear, 5.15. irritancy study, 5.16. spectrophotometric test, 5.17. microbial stability, 5.18. in vitro occlusivity test, 5.19. accelerated stability study, 5.20. preference test, 6. uses and applications, 7. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Share and Cite

Mawazi, S.M.; Ann, J.; Othman, N.; Khan, J.; Alolayan, S.O.; Al thagfan, S.S.; Kaleemullah, M. A Review of Moisturizers; History, Preparation, Characterization and Applications. Cosmetics 2022 , 9 , 61. https://doi.org/10.3390/cosmetics9030061

Mawazi SM, Ann J, Othman N, Khan J, Alolayan SO, Al thagfan SS, Kaleemullah M. A Review of Moisturizers; History, Preparation, Characterization and Applications. Cosmetics . 2022; 9(3):61. https://doi.org/10.3390/cosmetics9030061

Mawazi, Saeid Mezail, Jo Ann, Noordin Othman, Jiyauddin Khan, Sultan Othman Alolayan, Sultan S. Al thagfan, and Mohammed Kaleemullah. 2022. "A Review of Moisturizers; History, Preparation, Characterization and Applications" Cosmetics 9, no. 3: 61. https://doi.org/10.3390/cosmetics9030061

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March 22, 2022

4000 years of makeup: the evolution of makeup.

By Lissette Waugh

Understanding the origins and evolution of makeup is essential to understanding how beauty has evolved. In your career as a makeup artist, you will reference period makeup often. Read on to learn more about the evolution of makeup trends over time. 

Early Makeup – The Egyptians

The first recorded use of cosmetics dates back to 3000 BC during the first Egyptian dynasty. Makeup was used by the upper class to “decorate” a person’s eyes and set them apart from the lower classes. During this time, both men and women of the upper class wore makeup daily. 

The first makeup colors to be widely used were black and green. Black and green eyeshadows were made using mined lead and copper ores. The Egyptians also used makeup called “kohl” to outline the eyes in an almond shape. Kohl has a powder consistency and was applied using a small stick. 

Victorian Era Makeup

The Victorian Era lasted from 1837 to 1901. During this time, cosmetic use was linked to female actresses and prostitutes. People cherished the natural skin color, and any makeup that altered that natural color was frowned upon. 

During this time, women began to tweeze their eyebrows, massage castor oil into their eyelashes, and use rice powder to dust their noses. They also used beet juice or pinched their cheeks to make them rosier. Clear pomade was used to give the lips a glossy sheen. 

It wasn’t until the early 1900s that makeup became more socially accepted and began to gain popularity. This popularity led to the evolution of makeup and the availability of the first commercial cosmetics. 

Makeup in the 1920s

During the 1920s, society increasingly focused on the sexual beauty of women. As women entered the professional world, they were encouraged to wear makeup to compete against men for jobs. 

A specific, heavily made-up look defined cosmetics in the 1920s. Lips were painted in the shape of a cupid’s bow, eyes were rimmed with kohl, and cheeks were brushed with bright red blush. 

The 1920s is often revered today and plays a vital part in fashion, hair, makeup, and pop culture. Although the evolution of makeup has continued, many key aspects of makeup from the 1920s still exist in makeup trends today. 

Makeup Products of the 1920s

Lipstick became popular after the metal lipstick container was invented. Lipsticks were available in salve, liquid, and stick forms, but long-lasting stains were the most popular. “Natural” lipgloss was invented using Bromo acid to create a red effect as it reacted with the skin. Flavored lipstick was also popular, and cherry was the most popular flavor. 

Blush evolved significantly during the 1920s, replacing the messier blushes of the past with creams, powders, liquids, and rouge papers. Powder blushes grew more popular after the invention of spill-proof containers and the compact. 

Mascara also evolved during this time. Many women accomplished darker, fuller lashes using common household products like petroleum jelly mixed with soot or coal. Women then applied this dark gel to the lashes with a fine brush. By the mid-1920s, mascara was available in cake, tube, wax, and liquid form and applied with a brush. 

Eyeshadow was used to keep the eyes dark. First, the whole eye would be edged and blurred with a black kohl eyeliner. Next, the eyelid was painted in dark gray, turquoise, or green. 

Finally, it was popular to ink eyebrows using black or brown eyeliner. The eyebrows of the 1920s were often very thin, dark, and downward sloping. 

1950s Makeup Trends

As in previous decades, women took beauty inspiration from the decade’s big screen and movie starlets. With the explosion of color from the motion pictures in the 1950s, women were now fully able to see the makeup that stars were wearing. This led to a new evolution of makeup trends. 

Advertisements for major makeup brands like Max Factor, Revlon, and Elizabeth Arden also helped increase the popularity of makeup. The 1950s was, without a doubt, the age of glamour. Many of the makeup looks in the 1950s defined the era. 

1950s Makeup Products

Women in the 1950s began to use more foundation cream. They then used a flesh color setting powder to set it. 

Eye makeup was more minimal, with little eyeshadow applied. Colors stayed warm and earthy. All eyeshadows were matte texture. Mascara, on the other hand, grew increasingly dramatic. The look of fuller, more luxurious lashes carried into the 1950s from the 1940s. 

By the mid-1950s, winged or cat eyeliner was a crucial part of the makeup looks of the decade. Commercial eyeliner on the market was available in pencil, liquid, and gel forms. The possibilities for winged eyeliner were endless – changing the length, thickness, or color changed the appearance of the eye and the rest of the makeup dramatically. 

Eyebrows in the 1950s mainly were thicker in the inner corner and then tapered out to a clean point. The inner corner could be either rounded or squared. A gradually rounded eyebrow was very popular. It was common to take what eyebrow you had, tweeze it to a clean line, and then use a pencil to darken in and possibly thicken the brow. 

Lip shapes in the 1950s, for regular women, followed the basic shape of the natural mouth. In Hollywood, they began to taper the fall from the peak to the outer corner for a droop that almost mimicked a pleasant, innocent smile. Sultry movie stars like Marilyn Monroe were over-drawing their top lip for a fuller look. Hues of red, dark red, and blue-red were trendy. 

Makeup in the 1960s

The 1960s was a youth-oriented decade. The “baby boomers” were coming of age and defined the decade as their own. There was a significant evolution of makeup during this time. 

The feminist movement re-emerged in the sixties and was primarily focused on equality for all and the end of discrimination. Some feminists viewed makeup as objectifying women as sex objects and wore very little. Others embraced makeup and wore it as a badge of honor. 

Makeup looks were at both ends of the scale, from the natural look of the hippies to the dramatic black and white eyes of mod high-fashion, with pastel colors making their mark on the masses. 

The start of the 1960s saw a continuation of the 1950s makeup looks, with a flicked upper eyeliner, matte eyeshadows in greys, greens, and blues, and lipsticks ranging from red to corals and pink. 

A few years later, the distinctive dark eyeshadow crease of the 1960s came in, matched with pale lips and pastel colors. False lashes were also incredibly popular. 

1960s high-fashion makeup became all about the eyes. The rest of the face was kept soft and natural, pale and understated. 

Modernist Style

The modernist style, often called “mod,” peaked between early 1964 and mid-1967. During this time, youth-oriented television shows, magazines, and films united young people worldwide. The love for bold geometric patterns and black and white spilled over into the white eyeshadow and black crease look. 

1960s Makeup Products

The distinctive mod look, black eyeshadow line in the crease with a pale white eyelid, was exemplified by 1960s supermodel Twiggy on the cover of many magazines. The dark crease line was left as a sharp line, not blended or smudged. Powder eyeshadows were matte, but eye crayons and liquid eye makeup in a tube were also available. Compacts with several different eye makeup colors were also now available. 

Eyebrows were groomed, shaped, and defined with a brow pencil. The thickness of the brow and the amount of pencil used varied widely. 

Eyeliner looks continued from the 1950s. The upper eye line was in vogue, flicked out and up at the ends. Eyeliner came in pencil, cake, and liquid formats in various colors. 

Fake eyelashes were highly popular in the 1960s, especially starting in 1964. Fake lashes were worn on both the upper and lower lashes. They came either on a long strip that you cut to length or as individual sets in various styles.

Pastel colors like corals, pinks, and peach were the most fashionable blush colors. Applying blush to more than just the cheeks started in about 1963 and was intended to create a natural glow to the face. Color was often added to the temples, hairline, and under the jaw to add warmth and soft definition. 

Lipsticks were mainly matte, though women could use Vaseline to add a sheen if desired. Corals, pinks, and peach were the most fashionable lipstick colors. The mouth was kept understated and naturally defined. 

1970s Makeup Trends

Like the 1960s, the seventies were a diverse decade for makeup looks. The early 1970s was a continuance of the “flower power” natural look of the 60s. The late 70s started to see more glam. 

During the 70s, the makeup needs of women of color started to be recognized, and more women of color were used in advertising. The evolution of new makeup brands made just for women of color were launched, like Fashion Fair Cosmetics which debuted in 1973. 

In 1974, Vogue was the first mainstream magazine to feature a black model, Beverly Johnson, on the front cover. 

1970s Makeup Products

The 1970s were defined by three eye looks: natural and barely there, soft and smoky, bold and garish. 

The eye crease of the 1960s continued into the 70s for some makeup looks but was blended to create a soft depth and a cat-like or almond shape. There were no unblended lines in 1970s makeup. Many women didn’t use a crease, just one main color all over the lids, with an optional lighter shade under the brow. 

Eyeshadow finishes could be matte or have a pearlescent sheen to them. The industry used words like “frost” or “velvet” to describe these products. 

Eyeliner wasn’t always worn by those who favored a natural look. Eyeliner came in pencil and liquid forms with an applicator. White eyeliner worn directly behind black eyeliner on the upper eyelid was popular with some younger women and teenagers, a twist on the mod look of the 1950s. 

Mascara was worn on both upper and lower lashes. Depending on the individual’s tastes, it could be heavily coated on or applied softly to give a barely-there look. False eyelashes could still be worn, but they were less common than in the 1960s. 

Fashionable eyebrows were on the thinner side in the 1970s. These thin, curved brows were reminiscent of the Art Deco skinny brow. 

Deep fruit colors like plums, mulberry, and cranberry became popular lip colors in the early 1970s. Pastels, peaches, and pinks were also worn throughout the decade. 

Red lips made a comeback in the 1970s, riding on a nostalgia trip that looked back to the mature glamour and sophistication of the 1940s and 1950s. 

Lipsticks with gloss and sheen were fashionable, and there was some experimentation with flavored lip products. Lips were sometimes lined with a pencil, but not heavily – no lip liner lines were visible. 

How can LMI help?

In your career as a makeup artist , you will reference period makeup often. Understanding the evolution of makeup over time is essential to understanding makeup artistry in its current form. At L Makeup Institute, we offer several classes to help you achieve your commercial artistry goals. Our goal is to help the makeup artists of tomorrow perfect their skills and gain hands-on experience to help them with their makeup careers. 

We offer a wide variety of training, including focused beauty makeup and special effects makeup classes, to help you explore your talents and learn impressive techniques. If you are ready to start your career as a makeup artist, reach out to L Makeup Institute today.

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The History of Makeup: From Ancient Times to Modern Trends

Posted by ae | Apr 24, 2023 | Makeup | 0 |

Introduction

Makeup has been an essential part of human culture for thousands of years, and its evolution is a fascinating journey that reflects societal values, innovations, and trends. From ancient civilizations to modern makeup techniques, this article will take you on a captivating exploration of the history of makeup and its incredible transformation over time.

Ancient Egypt: The Birthplace of Makeup

Ancient Egypt is often considered the birthplace of makeup, where both men and women used cosmetics for various purposes. Egyptians believed that makeup had protective and spiritual properties, and they applied it to enhance their appearance and maintain their health.

Iconic Egyptian Makeup Styles

The most famous Egyptian makeup style was the use of kohl, a black substance made from ground minerals, to line the eyes and eyebrows. This bold look not only served aesthetic purposes but also protected the wearer from the sun’s glare and warded off evil spirits. In addition to kohl, Egyptians used pigments made from crushed insects, minerals, and plants to create vibrant lip and cheek colors.

Ancient Greece and Rome: Makeup for Status and Beauty

As makeup spread across the Mediterranean, it became an essential part of Greek and Roman culture. While the Greeks favored a more natural look, Romans embraced a wide range of cosmetics to enhance their beauty and display their status.

Greek Makeup Trends

Ancient Greeks used makeup sparingly and believed that beauty should be achieved through a healthy lifestyle and good hygiene. They used simple cosmetics like olive oil to moisturize their skin, crushed berries for lip color, and charcoal for eyeliner.

Roman Makeup Innovations

The Romans took makeup to new heights, using it to signify wealth and social standing. They experimented with a wide range of cosmetics, including face powders made from lead, lip colors from crushed flowers, and blushes from red ochre. Roman women also used a concoction of animal fat and ashes to darken their eyebrows, while men wore makeup to cover up scars and signs of aging.

The Middle Ages: Minimalism and Modesty

The Middle Ages saw a shift towards minimalism and modesty in makeup. The Catholic Church condemned the use of cosmetics, leading to a decline in their popularity. However, makeup was still used discreetly by those who sought to enhance their beauty.

The Rise of the Pale Complexion

During this period, a pale complexion was considered the epitome of beauty, symbolizing purity and nobility. Women used white powders made from lead or chalk to achieve this look, often at the expense of their health. Eyebrows were plucked or shaved entirely, and simple lip balms were used to moisturize the lips.

The Renaissance: The Rebirth of Makeup

The Renaissance marked the rebirth of art, science, and makeup. While the Church’s influence still loomed large, the use of cosmetics gradually increased as people sought to emulate the beauty ideals portrayed in art.

Beauty Trends of the Renaissance

Renaissance women continued to favor a pale complexion but opted for more natural ingredients like egg whites and alum. They also began to use blush made from crushed rose petals and experimented with various plant extracts for lip and cheek stains. Eyebrows regained popularity, and women filled them in with soot or crushed minerals.

18th and 19th Centuries: The Rise of Makeup as an Art Form

During the 18th and 19th centuries, makeup transformed into a true art form. The use of cosmetics became more widely accepted, and new innovations paved the way for modern makeup as we know it today.

Rococo and Victorian Eras

In the Rococo era, makeup was theatrical and exaggerated, with heavily powdered faces, bold rouges, and beauty marks. However, the Victorian era saw a return to modesty, with makeup being reserved for actresses and women of “ill repute.” Nevertheless, women secretly used natural ingredients like beetroot juice to tint their lips and cheeks.

Modern Makeup Innovations

The late 19th century brought groundbreaking innovations in makeup, including the invention of mascara, the first commercial lipstick, and pressed face powders. These products laid the foundation for the modern makeup industry and paved the way for the trends and techniques that followed.

The 20th Century: The Golden Age of Makeup

The 20th century was the golden age of makeup, with each decade bringing new trends, styles, and innovations that shaped the industry and our beauty ideals.

1920s: The Roaring Twenties

The 1920s saw the birth of the flapper, a new breed of bold, independent women who embraced makeup as a form of self-expression. Dark, smoky eyes, thin eyebrows, and bold red lips became the iconic look of the era.

1930s-1950s: Hollywood Glamour

From the 1930s to the 1950s, Hollywood glamour dominated the makeup scene. Movie stars like Greta Garbo, Marilyn Monroe, and Audrey Hepburn set the beauty standards, with arched eyebrows, winged eyeliner, and red lips becoming the signature look.

1960s: Mod Makeup and Youth Culture

The 1960s saw the rise of mod makeup and youth culture, with bold colors, graphic eyeliner, and voluminous lashes taking center stage. Twiggy and Edie Sedgwick were the faces of this era, inspiring millions of young women to experiment with their makeup.

1970s-1980s: Disco Fever and Bold Expression

The 1970s and 1980s were all about bold expression and individuality. Disco fever brought glitter and shimmer to the makeup scene, while the punk and new wave movements popularized bright colors and daring looks.

The 21st Century: Modern Makeup Trends and Innovations

Today, makeup is more diverse and inclusive than ever before. With an array of products catering to different skin tones, types, and preferences, makeup has truly become an art form accessible to everyone.

Makeup Trends in the 2000s and 2010s

The 2000s and 2010s saw the rise of the “no makeup” makeup look, bold brows, and contouring. Social media and beauty influencers alsoplayed a significant role in popularizing makeup trends, techniques, and tutorials, allowing makeup enthusiasts worldwide to share their passion and creativity.

Technology and Makeup

Technology has also revolutionized the makeup industry, with advancements in product formulations, packaging, and application tools. Innovative products like long-wearing foundations, liquid lipsticks, and makeup setting sprays have changed the game, making it easier for individuals to achieve professional results at home.

Green and Clean Beauty

As awareness about the impact of cosmetics on our health and the environment has grown, the demand for green and clean beauty products has skyrocketed. Today, there are numerous brands dedicated to creating eco-friendly, cruelty-free, and natural makeup options for consumers who prioritize sustainability and ethical practices.

The history of makeup is a captivating journey that reflects the evolution of society, culture, and beauty ideals. From its ancient roots in Egypt to the modern, diverse, and inclusive makeup industry of today, cosmetics have been an integral part of human expression for thousands of years. As we continue to innovate and embrace new trends, makeup will remain a powerful tool for self-expression, creativity, and empowerment.

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HISTORY OF MAKE-UP

2020, History of Make Up

Since ancient times makeup has been used to enhance beauty. Take the ancient Egyptians for example who wore makeup made of lead ore and copper. Women of the ancient world were often innovative when it came to their cosmetic needs. Berries were used to darken lips, the ashes of burnt matches were used to darken eyes, and much more. Today, we have developed makeup for practically every application you can think of. From making eyes pop with eyeshadow palettes to hiding undesirable pores, makeup has come a long way (we even have vegan makeup). To truly appreciate where we are today as opposed to where we used to be, let's take a look at the rich history of makeup. Homemade makeup in the ancient world Women of the ancient world, uneducated about safe beauty practices, often went to extreme lengths for the sake of beauty. Using berries to darken the lips was a safe enough practice. However, some homemade cosmetics involved the use of mercury, lead, arsenic, and leeches to achieve the pale beauty deemed appropriate during those times. It's safe to say we have long since recognized the need for safe products for our beauty needs and general health.

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Abdul Kader Mohiuddin

The word “cosmetics” actually stems from its use in Ancient Rome. They were typically produced by female slaves known as “cosmetae,” which is where the word “cosmetics” stemmed from. Cosmetics are used to enhance appearance. Makeup has been around for many centuries. The first known people who used cosmetics to enhance their beauty were the Egyptians. Makeup those days was just simple eye coloring or some material for the body. Now-a-days makeup plays an important role for both men and women. In evolutionary psychology, social competition of appearance strengthens women’s desires for ideal beauty. According to “The Origin of Species”, humans have evolved to transfer genes to future generations through sexual selection that regards the body condition of ideal beauty as excellent fertility. Additionally, since women’s beauty has recently been considered a competitive advantage to create social power, a body that meets the social standards of a culture could achieve limited social reso...

Molecular and Structural Archaeology: Cosmetic and Therapeutic Chemicals

philippe walter

Since remote times, decoration and care for the body have driven the search for a variety of materials possessing decorative, and sometimes pharmaceutical properties. Examination of human representations in prehistory and analysis of archaeological remains [1] have made it possible to bring together tenuous data relating to body art more than ten thousand years ago. The red and yellow pigments based on iron oxide, and black pigments based on carbon or manganese oxide, were ground and mixed to provide a range of tints useful in the ritual decoration of the body with tattoos or painted designs.

The word-cosmetics‖ actually stems from its use in Ancient Rome. They were typically produced by female slaves known as-cosmetae,‖ which is where the word-cosmetics‖ stemmed from. Cosmetics are used to enhance appearance. Makeup has been around for many centuries. The first known people who used cosmetics to enhance their beauty were the Egyptians. Makeup those days was just simple eye coloring or some material for the body. Now-a-days makeup plays an important role for both men and women. In evolutionary psychology, social competition of appearance strengthens women's desires for ideal beauty. According to-The Origin of Species‖, humans have evolved to transfer genes to future generations through sexual selection that regards the body condition of ideal beauty as excellent fertility. Additionally, since women's beauty has recently been considered a competitive advantage to create social power, a body that meets the social standards of a culture could achieve limited social resources. That's right, even men have become more beauty conscious and are concerned about their looks. Cosmetics can be produced in the organic and hypoallergenic form to meet the demands of users. Makeup is used as a beauty aid to help build up the self-esteem and confidence of an individual. The importance of cosmetics has increased as many people want to stay young and attractive. Cosmetics are readily available today in the form of creams, lipstick, perfumes, eye shadows, nail polishes, hair sprays etc. Other cosmetics like face powder give glow to the skin after applying the base cream. Then we have lipsticks, which are applied by many women of all ages. They are made from wax and cocoa butter in the desired amount. Cosmetics like creams, gels, and colognes are used on a daily basis by both women and men. Creams act as a cleanser for the face in many circumstances. More recently anti-ageing creams have been manufactured which can retain younger looking skin for many years. The best cleansing agents are cleansing cream, soap and water. Cosmetic creams serve as a skin food for hard, dry and chapped skin. It mainly lubricates, softens and removes unwanted dirt from the skin. Some popular fat creams that are used include Vaseline and Lanolin. Dry creams are used in the manufacture of soap and gelatin which is used as a base for the skin. Hair care has become one of the fastest developing markets in the beauty industry. Many young men turn to oils and gels to maintain and style their hair. Products like hair gels, oils, and lotions have been introduced in the market to help protect hair fall and dandruff. Some professions, like the show business industry, focus on the importance of the outer appearance. Many personalities and artists have utilized makeup to beat the harsh lights and the glare of camera flashes. They very well know the importance of their looks and maintain them by using a variety of cosmetics. Their appearance is their most valuable asset and they take every endeavor to appear as the fans want them to appear. Recent research has shown that makeup helps in protection from harmful rays of the sun. Many beauty products manufacturers have utilized the needs of people to protect themselves and their skin from the rays of the sun. This is a great achievement because earlier make up and sun protection could not blend together. The Importance of Cosmetics Today Cosmetics help to enhance our appearance and make us feel more confident. With more cosmetics on the market today than ever before, it becomes obvious to us that they play a great role in our everyday life.

British Journal of Pharmacology and Toxicology

Almoeiz Alhamadi

International journal of dermatology

A. Diamandopoulos

Engy El-Kilany

Beauty was a vital concept in ancient Egypt which motivated people to seek perfection in every single detail in their life. Thus, self beautification was an essential issue where cosmetics played a key role. This study aims to focus on the concept of beauty in ancient Egypt by exploring the different procedures, materials, recipes of facial cosmetics in ancient Egypt through analyzing texts and scenes related to this topic. Findings of this study revealed that facial cosmetics in ancient Egypt formed the base of many modern cosmetic products and techniques. It has many procedures such as cleansing, paint, treatment and protection. The materials used in manufacturing these cosmetics were extracted from natural sources as mineral, plants and animals.

Academia Letters

St John Simpson

Granthaalayah Publications and Printers

IJOEST Journal , Rajgopal Balaguru

Cosmetics have become a part of everyone's grooming routine, where lipstick promotes the mood of makeup. Around 5000 years ago, the ancient Sumerian and Indus Valley men and women were possibly the first to invent and wear lipstick. Sumerians used crushed gemstones to decorate their faces, mainly on the lips and around the eyes. Egyptians like Queen Cleopatra crushed Red Carmine (bugs)to create a Red Shade.

Vale Oyarzo

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Cosmetics Preservation: A Review on Present Strategies

Noureddine halla.

1 Antibiotics Antifungal Laboratory, Physical Chemistry, Synthesis and Biological Activity (LAPSAB), Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Tlemcen, BP 119, 13000 Tlemcen, Algeria; [email protected] (N.H.); zd.necmelt-vinu.liam@tirehcuob_z (Z.B.-O.); rf.oohay@ribektirehcuob (K.B.)

2 Laboratory of Biotoxicology, Pharmacognosy and Biological Recovery of Plants, Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Moulay-Tahar, 20000 Saida, Algeria

Isabel P. Fernandes

3 Centro de Investigação de Montanha (CIMO), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolónia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal; tp.bpi@fmpi (I.P.F.); tp.bpi@onelehs (S.A.H.)

4 Laboratory of Separation and Reaction Engineering-Laboratory of Catalysis and Materials (LSRE-LCM), Polytechnic Institute of Bragança, Campus Santa Apolónia, 5301-253 Bragança, Portugal

Sandrina A. Heleno

Patrícia costa.

5 Laboratory of Separation and Reaction Engineering-Laboratory of Catalysis and Materials (LSRE-LCM), Faculdade de Engenharia, Universidade do Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias s/n, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal; tp.pu.ef@csaicirtap (P.C.); tp.pu.ef@girdora (A.E.R.)

Zahia Boucherit-Otmani

Kebir boucherit, alírio e. rodrigues, isabel c. f. r. ferreira, maria filomena barreiro.

Cosmetics, like any product containing water and organic/inorganic compounds, require preservation against microbial contamination to guarantee consumer’s safety and to increase their shelf-life. The microbiological safety has as main goal of consumer protection against potentially pathogenic microorganisms, together with the product’s preservation resulting from biological and physicochemical deterioration. This is ensured by chemical, physical, or physicochemical strategies. The most common strategy is based on the application of antimicrobial agents, either by using synthetic or natural compounds, or even multifunctional ingredients. Current validation of a preservation system follow the application of good manufacturing practices (GMPs), the control of the raw material, and the verification of the preservative effect by suitable methodologies, including the challenge test. Among the preservatives described in the positive lists of regulations, there are parabens, isothiasolinone, organic acids, formaldehyde releasers, triclosan, and chlorhexidine. These chemical agents have different mechanisms of antimicrobial action, depending on their chemical structure and functional group’s reactivity. Preservatives act on several cell targets; however, they might present toxic effects to the consumer. Indeed, their use at high concentrations is more effective from the preservation viewpoint being, however, toxic for the consumer, whereas at low concentrations microbial resistance can develop.

1. Introduction

The global cosmetics market was $460 billion in 2014 and is expected to reach $675 billion by 2020 at an estimated growth rate of 6.4% per year [ 1 ]. This rising market requires continuous multidimensional control, namely, to monitor toxic ingredients and microbial contamination (i.e., chemical and biological contamination). Hazardous cosmetics pose a risk to consumers due to the presence of prohibited or restricted substances under the present in-force cosmetic laws. In addition, the contamination of cosmetic products is another risk for consumer’s health. According to the Rapid Alert System (RAPEX) of the European Commission (EC), 62 cosmetic products were recalled during the period between 2008 and 2014 due to contamination by microorganisms. The recalled products were notified by 14 different countries and their number was higher in 2013 and 2014 [ 2 ].

In general, the modification of cosmetic products is due to the presence of microorganisms, or might result from the exposure to atmospheric oxygen. To prevent these effects, two distinct groups of substances can be used, namely, antimicrobial preservatives, which act on microorganisms, and antioxidant preservatives capable of suppressing oxidation phenomena and the formation of free radicals [ 3 ]. In regulatory terms, a preservative is a substance of natural or synthetic origin intended to inhibit the development of microorganisms [ 4 ]. This inhibition should be effective over a broad activity spectrum and should have a duration longer than the cosmetic product itself, being equivalent to the expected shelf-life plus the usage time [ 5 ]. In addition, the antimicrobial activity should be sufficiently effective in order to prevent microorganism’s adaptation and resistance gain to the preservative system [ 6 ]. The cosmetic products are a nutrient-rich medium that favors microorganism’s growth, which, thereafter, influences the efficacy of the preservatives [ 3 ].

Considering the amount of antimicrobial agent to be used in a cosmetic, it is dependent on the intended role; high concentrations are used for active substances and low concentrations for preservatives. The first is used in antimicrobial cosmetics and the second one is required for most cosmetics. In addition to antimicrobial agents for preservation effects, the cosmetic industry applies other strategies, which include water activity and pH control, and the use of multifunctional ingredients.

In this context, this review discusses relevant available data concerning antimicrobial agents and cosmetic preservation. It has been divided into three sections; the first one is an overview of concepts with importance for the cosmetic field, microbiological safety, where a presentation of cosmetic products is given, in particular, those with antimicrobial properties. In addition, the contamination of cosmetics and the acceptance criteria of the different international regulations are detailed. The second section presents the various strategies used in the cosmetic preservation, together with the validation procedures required to introduce products on the market with microbiological safety. Considering that antimicrobial agents, particularly the synthetic ones, are the most used, the last section summarizes their importance and their application in cosmetic preservation. Herein the different chemical classes of these preservatives, toxicity, mechanisms of action as antimicrobials, and resistance mechanisms are discussed.

2. Overview of Cosmetics and Their Microbiological Safety

2.1. definition and classification of cosmetics.

The term ‘cosmetics’ derives from the Greek “Kosm tikos” meaning ‘having the power to arrange, skilled in decoration’, to give “kosmein”, to adorn, and “kosmos”, order, harmony [ 7 ]. The Council of European Union regulation gave the following definition: “cosmetic product means any substance or mixture intended to be placed in contact with the external parts of the human body (epidermis, hair system, nails, lips, and external genital organs) or with the teeth and the mucous membranes of the oral cavity with a view exclusively or mainly to cleaning them, perfuming them, changing their appearance, protecting them, keeping them in good condition, or correcting body odours” [ 4 ].

Generally, a cosmetic product is used in the direct treatment of the external surface of the human body in order to perform the following four functions: (1) maintenance in good condition; (2) change in appearance; (3) protection; and (4) correction of body odor [ 8 , 9 ]. The term “cosmeceutics” (or active cosmetics) was popularized by the dermatologist Albert Kligman in the 1980s. This term means a combination of cosmetics and pharmaceuticals, used to define products that can have a beneficial effect on skin, but cannot be considered as having a clear biological therapeutic effect (e.g., retinol, certain bleaching agents, etc.). However, the cosmeceutic term remains controversial without legal status and has not been generally accepted by all researchers [ 9 ]. Cosmetics can be classified according to their use, fields of application, functions, form of preparation, consumer’s age or gender, among others [ 10 ]. The most appropriate classification is as follows [ 4 , 9 , 11 ]: (1) cosmetics for personal cleansing (soaps, deodorants, shampoos); (2) cosmetics for the skin, hair, and integument care (toothpastes, products for external intimate care); (3) cosmetics for embellishment (perfumes, lip colors); (4) protective cosmetics (solar products, anti-wrinkle products); (5) corrective cosmetics (beauty masks, hair dyes); (6) maintenance cosmetics (shaving cream, moisturizing creams); and (7) active cosmetics (fluoridated toothpastes, antiseptics).

2.2. Cosmetic Products with Antimicrobial Effect

Cosmetic products with antimicrobial effect can be described as preparations with the ability to provide consumer’s protection against the presence of antimicrobial compounds, having bactericidal effect. Products like mouthwashes, skin disinfectants or antibacterial soaps present this characteristic. Currently, the limit between drugs and cosmetic products with antimicrobial effect is increasingly indistinct. Sometimes the difference between a cosmetic product and a drug lies in the concentration of the active ingredient in the product (e.g., mouthwash). There is also an unclear distinction between the definition of cosmetic and dermatological treatment (e.g., acne treatment). As a result, some modern cosmetics are in an increasingly grey zone and can almost be defined as drugs or over-the-counter (OTC). This fact confers a heavy responsibility on the various international regulation agencies [ 9 , 12 ]. In all cases, a decision on product qualification must be made by the competent national authorities on a case-by-case basis, and taking into account all relevant factors, such as their appearance, the type of active ingredient, length of use, mode of action, and claims. A proposal for classification, based on the international regulations, is presented in Table 1 .

Classification of cosmetic products with antimicrobial effects.

2.3. Microbiological Safety of Cosmetic Products

Generally speaking, all products, including cosmetics, containing water and organic/inorganic compounds under appropriate physicochemical conditions, are exposed to microbial contamination. This justifies why these products require effective and adequate protection against microorganism proliferation [ 13 , 14 ]. An ideal preservation system (intrinsic or extrinsic) should protect the product from microbial degradation, both in its original closed packaging until use, and in an open container throughout its use [ 15 , 16 ]. In recent years, the safety record for personal care products has been excellent, resulting in a scarce occurrence of infections due to contaminated products [ 17 ]. Studies have shown that the mostly frequent microorganisms found in cosmetics comprise Pseudomonas aeruginosa , Klebsiella oxytoca , Burkholderia cepacia , Staphylococcus aureus , Escherichia coli , Candida albicans , Enterobacter gergoviae , and Serratia marcescens , but also other bacteria, fungi and yeasts. The skin and mucous membranes are protected against microorganisms; however, their presence in these products can increase the risk of microbial infection [ 18 ].

Microbial contamination may occur during manufacture (primary contamination) and/or during consumer use (secondary contamination) [ 10 , 19 ]. The diagram in Figure 1 summarizes the causes, consequences, and ways of prevention against both types of contamination (primary and secondary). Moreover, all potential sources of contamination must be identified and monitored. In order to do so, four steps must be considered: (1) inspection and control of raw materials; (2) manufacturing process; (3) delivery of the final product and; finally; (4) its use by the consumer.

Causes, consequences. and ways of preventing cosmetics contamination [ 10 , 16 , 17 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 ].

2.4. Microbiological Specifications According to International Regulations

With industrialization and the fast emergence of new ingredients used in cosmetics, several directives and regulations have been elaborated, in order to control the use of these ingredients, to ensure consumer safety, to determine the responsibilities, and enable claims for adverse reactions. Among the recommended regulations worldwide, only three represent the major cosmetic markets, namely the United States, the European Union, and Japan [ 33 ].

2.4.1. Legislation in the United States

In the United States, the FDA (U.S. Food and Drug Administration) is the lead agency for the enforcement of laws governing the marketing of cosmetics. It is responsible for controlling cosmetic products after they are placed in the market [ 34 , 35 ].

The FDA prohibits the distribution of adulterated or mislabeled cosmetics. In addition, FDA has banned the production of cosmetic products under conditions that could lead to contamination. Although it is not mandatory, cosmetics must be manufactured in accordance with current good manufacturing practices (CGMPs). The FDA declares that cosmetics should not be sterile, however, they should not be contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms and the density of non-pathogenic organisms should be low [ 36 ].

Since the FDA does not specify acceptable levels, the cosmetic industry generally follows the guidelines of the Personal Care Products Council (PCPC) (formerly the Cosmetic, Toiletry, and Fragrance Association (CTFA)) regarding the level of microbial contamination and the absence of pathogens: (1) for the eye zone and products for babies, it should not be greater than 500 colony forming units (CFU)/g; (2) for all other products, it has to be no greater than 1000 CFU/g [ 37 ].

2.4.2. Legislation in Japan

In Japan, cosmetics are regulated by the Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare (MHLW) under the Pharmaceutical Affairs Law (PAL). For legal reasons, cosmetics are divided into quasi-drugs and cosmetics. The Japanese Pharmacopoeia (PJ) was established and published to regulate the properties and qualities of medicines by MHLW on the basis of the provisions of Article 41 (1) of the Act, following advice from the Pharmaceutical Affairs and Food Sanitation Council (PAFSC). Since it was first published in June 1886, the PJ has been revised several times. The last PJ edition (17th edition) was published in 2016. The Japanese Pharmacopoeia harmonized the criteria for accepting the microbiological quality of non-sterile pharmaceuticals [ 38 ].

Microbiological quality acceptance criteria require that the total number of aerobic microorganisms in products for oromucosal, gingival, cutaneous, and nasal uses, should not be greater than 10 2 CFU/g or CFU/mL and a total combined number of yeasts/molds should not be greater than 10 1 CFU/g or CFU/mL in the absence of Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa in 1 g or 1 mL of the product [ 38 ].

2.4.3. Legislation in the European Union

In the European Union (EU), cosmetic products have been regulated by EU Council Directive 76/768/EEC. These rules were adopted on 27 July 1976 and at 27 September 1976 were published in the Official Journal of the European Communities “L 262”. Since then, it has been constantly evolving and adapted to technical progress [ 4 ].

Recommendations on the limits of microbial contamination in cosmetic products can be found in the SCCS ‘Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety’ Guideline “SCCS Notes of Guidance for the Testing of Cosmetic Ingredients and their Safety Evaluation, 9th revision”. Two distinct categories of cosmetic products are defined within the limits of microbiological quality control:

• Category 1—products specifically intended for children under three years, to be used in the eye area and on mucous membranes;
• Category 2—other products.

It is generally accepted that for cosmetics classified in Category 1, the total viable count for aerobic mesophyllic microorganisms should not exceed 10 2 CFU/g or 10 2 CFU/mL of the product. For cosmetics classified in Category 2, the total viable count for aerobic mesophyllic microorganisms should not exceed 10 3 CFU/g or 10 3 CFU/mL of the product. Pseudomonas aeruginosa , Staphylococcus aureus , and Candida albicans are considered the main potential pathogens in cosmetic products. These specific potential pathogens must not be detectable in 1 g or 1 mL of a cosmetic product of Category 1 and in 0.1 g or 0.1 mL of a cosmetic product of Category 2 [ 18 ].

In 2015, a new standard was published by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO 17516:2014 Cosmetics-Microbiology-Microbiological limits), in which the main objective is to define acceptable quantitative and qualitative limits for finished cosmetic products. This standard requires that each manufacturer be responsible for the microbiological safety and quality of its products and must ensure that they have been produced under hygienic conditions. Cosmetics are not supposed to be sterile. However, they must not contain excessive quantities of specified microorganisms or microorganisms which may affect the quality of the product or the safety of the consumer [ 39 ].

3. Preservation Strategies

Manufacturers of cosmetics use different strategies to prevent microbial contamination without affecting the properties of the product itself. Usually, the term preservation refers to the use of synthetic and natural chemical preservatives. However, self-preservation or free preservation is a preservation without the use of an additional chemical ingredient classified as preservative in the annexes of the cosmetic legislation [ 40 , 41 ]. The microbial preservation strategies range from the first stages of manufacture to consumption, in order to minimize the risk of microbial contamination. The main stages of this procedure will be briefly described. In addition, all the strategies mentioned below, with the exception of the synthetic chemical preservatives used, are introduced by several authors in the concept of “Hurdle Technology” for the preservation of cosmetics. ‘Hurdle Technology’ is a term that describes the intelligent combination of the several factors that prevent the development of microorganisms [ 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 ].

To achieve a good protection of cosmetic products against microbial contamination, the industry provides two stages of preservation: primary and secondary. The strategy of primary preservation occurs during manufacturing and is based on the application of GMP. The secondary preservation, which takes place after manufacture, uses chemical, physical, or physicochemical ways to attain an efficient protection.

3.1. Primary Preservation Strategy

GMP must be strictly obeyed during the production of cosmetic products. The preparation of the cosmetics under strictly aseptic conditions must avoid their microbial contamination. Water treatment, microbial control of raw materials, equipment disinfection, and qualification of personnel can reduce the risk of contamination [ 10 , 30 , 42 ].

Certification, ISO 22716:2007—Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) for Cosmetics, has been approved and accepted (with or without modification) by most regulatory organizations around the world, particularly after the July 2008 meeting of the International Cooperation on Cosmetic Regulation (ICCR) (the United States, the European Union, Japan, and Canada) [ 47 ].

3.2. Secondary Preservation Strategy

Three main strategies have been used to preserve cosmetic products during storage, transport, and use: physical, chemical, and physicochemical preservation.

3.2.1. Physical Secondary Preservation

This type of preservation is completed by the use of primary packaging where a physical barrier exists to prevent microbial contamination. Two levels of protection can be provided by the packaging: (1) against contamination during use; and (2) against accumulation of contamination in the distribution system [ 48 ]. The shape and characteristics of primary packaging presents a significant influence in the potential for microbial contamination. These characteristics include not only the physical configuration of the packaging (boxes, jars, bottles, flasks, sachets, tubes, aerosol propellants, etc.), but also the nature and composition of the used materials (polymers, glass, etc.) [ 30 , 32 , 42 , 49 ]. For example, jars and bottles are more likely to cause microbial contamination, whereas closed system configurations (with airless pumps) are less accessible to contamination [ 50 ]. Compressed gases, as aerosol propellants, generally provide a good protection to the product. The pumping systems and tubes containing narrow openings also represent an excellent design for product protection during use. Moreover, the risk of contaminated bath water from shampoos and shower gels during use is greatly diminished by the use of containers with a narrow opening [ 20 , 51 ]. Additionally, the use of re-closable systems can reduce the potential for microbial risk. Beyond this, the sizes of the packaging and the delivery holes may also have an effect on exposure and microbial risks. However, the primary packaging system can influence the effectiveness of chemical preservatives by migration or adsorption phenomena [ 49 , 52 ]. In the last decade, active packaging technology (packaging incorporated with antimicrobial agents) has been transferred from food to the cosmetic field [ 53 ].

3.2.2. Physicochemical Secondary Preservation

Water activity.

Usually, water is the major constituent of cosmetics, but it is an ideal growth factor for microorganisms. To solve this problem, certain substances can reduce the water activity (aw), such as salts, polyols (sorbitol, glycerol, ethoxydiglycol, etc.), protein hydrolysates, amino acids, and hydrocolloids (xanthan gum, guar gum, etc.), glyceryl polyacrylate gel, sodium polyacrylate and sodium chloride. The choice of these substances depends on their aspect, their toxic effect, and also the nature of the cosmetics [ 30 , 32 , 42 , 54 , 55 ]. Water activity can also be reduced by the use of vapour-resistant bottles, film strip, vapour-repellent film coatings, or polyacrylamide hydrogels [ 56 ]. Berthele et al. [ 57 ] reported that a water activity value of 0.8, and without preservatives incorporated in the formulas tested, can guarantee microbiological stability of the cosmetic products.

Emulsion Form

Water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions can minimize the risk of microbial contamination more than oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions [ 42 ]. The size of the emulsions droplets can improve the cosmetics effectiveness. In many cases, the decrease in the size of the emulsion droplets (nanoemulsion) increases the antimicrobial activity. However, the antimicrobial activity depends also of the oil phase chemical composition, namely the type of phenolic compounds, their concentration, and chemical structure [ 58 , 59 , 60 ].

The optimum pH for microorganism’s growth in cosmetic products is between 5 to 8, meaning that any pH outside this range induces unfavourable conditions, thus decreasing their growth rate [ 6 , 42 ]. The acidic pH of cationic hair conditioners (pH = 4, approximately) contributes to the antimicrobial action of these products [ 54 , 61 ]. Other formulations with acidic pH can inhibit the growth of microorganisms, such as products containing salicylic acid and aluminium compounds in antiperspirants (pH ranging from 3.5 to 4.5) [ 62 ]. Liquid soaps having an alkaline pH (pH 9.5 to 10.5) exhibit an unfavourable environment for microorganism growth of (e.g., destabilizing their membrane), due to the effects of ionized fatty acids and free alkalinity of the existent NaOH. Generally speaking, microorganisms cannot proliferate or survive in a cosmetic formulation with a pH of less than 4 or greater than 10 [ 54 , 57 ].

3.2.3. Chemical Secondary Preservation

Synthetic chemical preservatives.

The EU Cosmetic Directive means by preservative substances that are exclusively or mainly intended to inhibit the development of microorganisms in the cosmetic products. Their presence is essential in most cosmetic products. The choice of these preservatives as ingredients in cosmetics must comply with Annex V of the cosmetic regulation (Article 14 of the Cosmetic Regulation) [ 4 ]. Generally, preservative selection is based on three criteria (plus the regulatory criterion): (1) very good antimicrobial efficacy; (2) non-toxic; and (3) compatible with the other ingredients of the cosmetic formulation [ 63 , 64 ]. Currently, preservatives have been used as a mixture to increase antimicrobial activity, broadening the spectrum of activity, reducing the resistance of microorganisms and the risk of toxicity [ 65 ].

Natural Chemical Preservatives

Plant extracts and essential oils are mainly added to cosmetic preparations due to their well-recognized properties, such as: antioxidant anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial, emollients, dyes, humectants, wound healing, anti-mutagens, anti-aging, protective agents against UV-B damage, and reducing skin discoloration [ 66 ]. Several studies have shown the preservative efficacy of natural products in cosmetic products [ 29 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 78 ]. Natural products are used free, microencapsulated, or transported by nanostructured carriers [ 79 , 80 ]. Their application as antimicrobials in cosmetic preparations is often discouraged due to their loss of activity in dilutions, pH-dependency, volatility and lipophilic aspects (essential oils), and strong odor (essential oils), which can be highly inadequate/undesirable for some kind of products [ 6 , 30 , 32 , 42 , 81 ].

Multifunctional Ingredients

Each ingredient is added to the cosmetic formulation for a well-defined function, but it can, simultaneously, contribute to another effect (such as antimicrobial activity), thus acting as a multifunctional ingredient. In the sense of self-preservation, these ingredients have been used as antimicrobial preservatives by replacing conventional preservatives. Chelating agents, surfactants, humectants, and phenolic compounds are examples of multifunctional ingredients. Chelating agents (e.g., EDTA ‘ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid’, GLDA ‘glutamic acid, N , N -diacetic acid, lactic acid, citric acid, and phytic acid) increase the permeability of cell membranes and make them more sensitive to antimicrobial agents. In addition, chelating agents block the iron required for metabolism and microbial growth, and can enhance the antimicrobial efficacy of the used preservatives [ 42 , 82 ]. Surfactants with antimicrobial properties are the 1,2-diols (from butanediol to octanediol, mainly caprylyl glycol) due to their amphiphilic character and average molecular size, exhibit viscosity modulation properties that complement their antimicrobial properties. These properties depend on the length of the chain and the position of the hydroxyl groups [ 83 , 84 ]. Medium-chain saturated fatty acids, such as heptanoic acid (C7), caprylic acid (C8), capric acid (C10), and lauric acid (C12), and their esters with glycerine or propylene glycol, have been found to be active against enveloped viruses and various bacteria and fungi. In the case of glyceryl monoesters, there is an emulsifier passage to the antibacterial activity at the C8 to C12 ranges [ 42 , 85 ]. Other ingredients, such as phenethyl alcohol and cationic detergents, are used as emulsifiers, and have intrinsic antibacterial properties [ 6 , 42 ]. The use of humectants, such as glycerin, sorbitol, and xylitol, at sufficient levels, increases the strength of the formula [ 6 ]. Amaral et al. [ 86 ] reported that monoester c-8 xylitol can be used as an alternative preservative for cosmetic formulations. In a dental cream, a mixture of sorbitol and glycerin, at 10% to 12% levels, is often enough to protect the formula [ 6 ]. Berthele et al. [ 57 ] observed that a high concentration of glycerin, beyond having an influence on the appearance of the product, it could also present an effect on the microbial growth. The primary function of phenolic antioxidants is to delay the self-oxidation of unsaturated oils that could influence the color and odor of the product. Beyond that, compounds as propylic gallate, caffeic acid, coumaric acid, ferulic acid, citric acid, and tartaric acid have also demonstrated antimicrobial activity [ 87 ].

3.3. Validation of Effective Preservation

A proper preservation ensures effective protection against the undesirable growth of microorganisms during storage and product use. To meet these requirements, the choice of the type and concentration of preservative during formulation development is important, but, likewise, the type and extent of potential microbial influences that could impair the quality of the final product should be considered. The microbial quality of raw materials is a particularly important factor, but the provision of complete production instructions, covering the treatment of preservatives and the hygiene of raw materials until the final product is shipped, is also vital [ 88 ]. We have cited above the different strategies of preservation, but before delivering the final product, most cosmetic manufacturers will ensure three important steps in order to preserve the product, namely: (1) choice of primary packaging; (2) microbiological control of the raw material; and (3) validation of the antimicrobial efficacy of the preservation system.

3.3.1. Types of Primary Packaging

The type of primary packaging also affects the protection of the product in use by the consumer (see Section 3.1 ). Packaging can pose a microbial hazard before filling it with the ingredients of the cosmetic product. Today, cosmetics wrapped in wide-open bottles are one of the biggest challenges for any preservation system, with their large surface area exposed to a damp, contaminated environment [ 89 ].

3.3.2. Microbiological Control of Raw Materials

During manufacture, the main sources of contamination are the used raw materials, including water, and the manufacturing process itself. The microbiological quality of water depends on its origin. Water remains one of the most important factors in the contamination of a product. Species such as Pseudomonas , Achromobacter , Aeromonas , Flavobacterium , Xanthomonas , Actinobacter , and Aerobacter spp. were recovered from natural waters. The presence of Escherichia coli may be a sign of recent contamination by wastewater [ 2 , 90 ]. Treatments by softening or deionizing water often change the microbiological quality of the water. These microbiologically-treated water systems must be well maintained using, for example, ultraviolet (UV) and/or bacterial filtration to ensure optimum quality [ 91 , 92 ]. The raw material of animal or vegetable origin can be highly contaminated by coliforms [ 93 ]. However, the synthetic raw materials are relatively free of contamination, with the exception of some that have additional stages in their manufacture, such as kaolin, sugars and vitamins, synthetic surfactants, or hydrated salts [ 92 ].

During the manufacturing process, contamination can occur by contact with operators, manufacturing equipment, and air. Microorganisms from human sources are likely to contaminate a cosmetic product; they can be part of the nasopharynx, the oral flora, the hair, the skin of the hands and, under certain circumstances, the intestinal flora. Among these, fecal streptococci , staphylococci , enterobacteria , and Pseudomonas have enough vitality to survive, and even to multiply, within a product [ 94 ]. Manufacturing equipment is also an important source of contamination, from maintenance materials (oils, greases), poor cleaning and/or disinfection on a regular basis, and product change. The cleaning-in-place (CIP) design must be carefully evaluated [ 95 ]. Particular attention must be paid to air quality of the manufacturing chambers. The number of workers together with the size of their movements, contribute to 80% to air contamination [ 96 ]. Air conditioning contributes to 15% of this contamination, and the chamber structure (materials used on its construction) contributes to 5%. It is, therefore, essential to set acceptable levels for biocontamination of air and to its quality control [ 92 ].

3.3.3. Antimicrobial Efficacy Test of the Preservation System

The antimicrobial efficacy test is used to assess the efficacy of preservation systems in the final product. The antimicrobial efficacy test was initially designed to assess the performance of antimicrobials added to inhibit the growth of microorganisms that may be introduced into the product during or after the manufacturing process [ 97 ]. Several tests have been recommended by different laboratories, but the challenge test (described next) remains the method adopted by the international regulations. These methods are described in the European, American, and Japanese pharmacopoeia, as well as other organizations, such as PCPC (Personal Care Products Council) (from CTFA-M1 to CTFA-M7), ASEAN (Association for Southeast Asian Nations), ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials), and International Organization for Standardization (ISO 11930 standard), among others.

Challenge Test

The challenge test is used during product development to determine the efficacy and stability of the preservative system over time. The test involves inoculating a measured amount of product with known amounts of microorganisms (bacteria, yeasts, and molds) [ 98 ]. Whenever possible the original packaging is used for the test. The containers are protected from light and incubated at room temperature for 28 days. The mortality rate is measured over this period in relation to the acceptance criteria set out in the official regulations documents [ 97 , 99 ].

Challenge test assessment is related to the stability of a formulation during manufacture, storage, and its use by the consumer. It is recommended that all these aspects be duly taken into account when performing such tests by carrying out the following parameters: (1) validation of the preservation efficacy when freshly prepared in laboratorial conditions; (2) validation of the preservation efficacy after the end of storage in the container, to show possible interference with the packaging materials; and (3) validation of preservation efficacy in the first production batch, just prior to packaging, thus revealing all possible influences occurring throughout the manufacturing process [ 100 ]. To evaluate the microbiological quality of a product, results of the efficacy test of a cosmetic product preservatives are collected and a prognosis is achieved [ 99 ]. The recommendations of the challenge test are inspired by the European, American, and Japanese pharmacopoeia. A comparison between these three pharmacopoeias is summarized in Figure 2 .

Preservative effectiveness testing comparison between the Japan, USA and European Pharmacopeias [ 38 , 108 , 109 ] where: B: bacteria, Y: yeast, M: molds, USP: United States pharmacopeia, JP: Japanese pharmacopoeia, EP: European pharmacopoeia, TSA: soybean-casein digest agar, and SDA: sabouraud dextrose agar.

a. Test organisms

The specific strains recommended to be used in these tests can be obtained from official cell culture collections, such as the American Type Culture Collection (ATCC). The most common test strains are potentially pathogenic representatives of Gram-positive bacteria ( Staphylococcus aureus ), Gram-negative bacteria ( Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa ), molds ( Aspergillus niger ), and yeast ( Candida albicans ) [ 17 ].

Staphylococcus aureus represents Gram-positive cocci in many tests. It is a part of normal nasal and cutaneous microflora. Although rare, its presence in cosmetic products may be indicative of human contamination. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a Gram-negative bacilli. It is a well-known and highly pathogenic ubiquitous bacteria. It also shows high resistance against many preservatives. Escherichia coli is a Gram-negative bacilli of the family Enterobacteriaceae. It is considered as an indicator of fecal contamination. Like most coliform bacteria, it can easily develop resistance to preservatives. Candida albicans is present in human mucous and ubiquitous in the environment. It is the representative of yeasts being an example of yeast resistance to presents to preserved systems. Aspergillus niger is a major cause of product decomposition and contamination by filamentous fungi [ 6 , 17 , 101 ].

The conservation of strains is an important factor. For example, most bacteria and the yeast Candida remain viable for one month under refrigerated conditions, while Pseudomonas aeruginosa cannot be useful after two weeks (depending on specific conditions). An effective way to keep mold spores is to store them at room temperature on slanted agar. Weekly or periodic transplanting may be done to ensure the viability of microorganisms, but this practice increases the risk of resistance loss. Alternatively, the cultures can also be frozen or lyophilized, in order to maintain the stability of the microorganism and avoid the need of frequent subcultures. The main advantage of these storage media is the prevention of genetic resistance factors loss [ 28 , 102 ].

b. Inoculum

Strain maintenance is an important component of any standard protocol, and involves standardization of strain storage, culture conditions (time and temperature), and selected nutrient medium [ 103 ]. The growth and preparation of a test organism determines its physiological state and have a direct influence on the results of the preservative efficacy analysis [ 104 , 105 ]. It is essential to maintain cultures of microorganisms that are transplanted on suitable supports, to ensure viability and resistance [ 103 ].

A medium such as tryptic soy agar (soybean-casein digest agar) supports vigorous growth and is recommended for the initial culture of the bacteria. Sabouraud dextrose agar is a non-selective medium used for the cultivation and conservation of pathogenic and non-pathogenic fungi [ 106 ].

Pharmacopoeia use saline solutions to wash test strains before inoculation instead of nutrient broth. The latter decreases the inactivation rate of the test organisms comparatively with the saline solution prepared for the strains grown on the agar [ 107 ].

According to all the three pharmacopoeia, the strains are cultured for the same period of time, ensuring that the cells are viable and growing in the log phase, thereby normalizing the response to antimicrobial agents [ 38 , 108 , 109 ].

c. Inoculation of samples

After adjusting the number of starting cells, the inoculum is then used to inoculate test samples. For some organizations (such as CTFA), samples of cosmetic products can be inoculated as bacterial or fungal “cocktails”. Nevertheless, the use of bacterial or fungal mixtures offers considerable savings in time and cost. However, the three pharmacopoeias recommend inoculation by a single strain separately. The volume of the inoculum should not exceed 1% of the product sample, in order to avoid the modification of its physical and chemical properties [ 38 , 108 , 109 ].

The inoculated test samples are incubated during 28 days, varying the conditions between room and high temperature, depending on the objective, since higher temperatures are used to simulate specific environmental conditions. Temperatures between 20–25 °C support the growth of microorganisms and their possible reaction with preservative active ingredients [ 98 ].

d. Assessment of the microbial level for cosmetic products

To estimate the level of microorganisms inoculated in a sample of a cosmetic product, it is required to select the appropriate conditions of each culture (culture medium, dilution, temperature and period of incubation). These conditions must provide an unlimited growth of microorganisms, resulting in the inactivation of the preservative system present in the sample [ 102 ].

The number of viable microorganisms’ existent in the inoculums suspension is determined by the plate count method, through which the initial concentration of CFU/mL in the test product is determined. The inoculated vessels are examined 7, 14, 21, and 28 days after inoculation and the number of microorganisms (CFU/mL) is determined at each time interval, being the percentage of microorganisms estimated relative to the initial concentration [ 28 ].

The preservative inactivation is considered successful when the number of the microorganisms inoculated at zero time deviates by no more than 1 log10 from the one theoretically predicted. The survival rate can be either qualitatively or quantitatively evaluated [ 110 ]. Several independent researchers have applied other microorganism counting methods in the efficacy test of preservatives, including impedance, direct epifluorescence (DEF), and ATP bioluminescence (ATP-B).

The impedance method is based on a calibration between CFU and the impedance detection time (DT) establishment. In this method, the electrochemical changes in a microbiological culture due to microorganisms’ metabolism is measured [ 111 ]. In a culture medium, the impedance variation occurs due to the chemical composition modification caused by the growth of microorganisms and metabolic activity. The density of the population of microorganisms is correlated with the DT of the impedance. The DT is referred to as the time required to produce a detectable acceleration in the impedance curve [ 112 ]. The results obtained indicated that this method is applicable to the entire range of test strains (bacterial and fungal), having a detection sensitivity equivalent colony counting method, representing a satisfactory alternative to this one [ 113 , 114 ]. In 2014, Ferreira et al. [ 115 ] used lyophilized inoculum of solid powders in order to enable the microorganisms’ homogenization in the sample. They also verified the applicability of the impedance method for these lyophilized inoculum.

The direct epifluorescence (DEF) method is based on the observation that viable microbial cells, which mainly contain RNA, are stained in red with orange acridine, while non-viable cells, which mainly contain DNA, are stained in green. The DEF, as a quick method, has two major advantages: first, it gives an immediate result (between 1 to 4 h); and second, it presents the potential for high detection sensitivity which is determined by the maximum sample volume that can be concentrated on the filter. However, in practice, there are problems associated with the interference of cellular debris with viable cells (red stain), as well as interference of dead clumped cells with microcolonies (green fluorescence). The clumping of bacterial cells by some preservatives (chlorhexidine) is another problem which overestimates the viability. Thus, this technique is not applicable to Aspergillus and it is not suitable for processing complex formulations that cause problems in filtration of samples [ 116 ].

In the ATP bioluminescence method (ATP-B), the bioluminescence mechanism involves the enzyme luciferase in the presence of luciferin, oxygen (O 2 ), magnesium and ATP. This reaction leads to the emission of photons and the intensity of the light produced is directly proportional to the rate of ATP [ 117 ]. However, this method is not applicable to the genus Aspergillus , and to creams or suspensions, since these latest could interfere with the detection of light emission [ 116 ].

e. Interpretation of results

The acceptance criteria, in terms of the logarithmic reduction of the viable microorganism’s number relatively to the value obtained for the inoculums, vary for the different categories of preparations, according to the international organizations [ 118 ]. The criteria of the three pharmacopoeias for the evaluation of antimicrobial activity are given in Figure 2 . The log reduction is calculated by the following equation: log reduction = log of initial CFU/mL-log of product challenge results CFU/mL [ 98 ].

Other Published Methods

Preservatives should have a rapid effect against a wide range of microorganisms. Several screening methods and the assessment of preservation effectiveness have been reported as the D-value method and the capacity test, both described below.

a. D-value method

In 1979, Orth proposed a quick method to estimate the effectiveness of preservatives [ 119 ]. This method can be used to determine the shelf life of cosmetic products within 48 h for bacteria and yeasts, and seven days for mold. The inactivation rate of the selected organisms is given by the decimal reduction time (D-value). The D-value, for each organism in each test sample, is calculated by taking the negative inverse of the slope of the straight line obtained by linear regression of the logarithm curve of surviving organisms, after the inoculation in the tested sample. To determine the D-value, the following conditions must be fulfilled: (1) one strain for each test; (2) a quantitative determination of the number of viable microorganisms; (3) preservation must reduce the number of microorganisms by several orders of magnitude, within the first 24 h; (4) the death curve must adjust a linear regression; and (5) sufficient data are acquired at the first reading point to generate the regression [ 120 ].

b. Capacity test

The capacity test evaluates the effectiveness of the preservative concentration and, thus, the spectrum of antimicrobial activity of the creams, suspensions, and solutions. This test involves the use of mixed bacterial and fungal cultures (yeasts and molds). A sample with a mass of 20 g is inoculated with 1 mL of the mixed culture. After 48 h of incubation at room temperature, 1 mL of each sample is removed and re-seeded in broth added with a suitable neutralizer. A sample of this dispersion is then spread on the neutralizer-containing agar. A preservative should reduce the number of viable organisms in a 103 inoculated formulation, within 48 h, for creams and suspensions, to produce a single negative result. This capacity decreases gradually due to the dilution and absorption of preservative by the microorganisms. After each test, the products are sampled and challenged again until the product receives 15 challenges without showing growth (a well-preserved product) or until three consecutive positive results occur (a less-preserved product) [ 28 ].

Factors affecting preservation effectiveness tests

The effectiveness of a preservation system can be affected by the quality of the raw materials and several other factors with influence in the microbiological quality of a complete formulation [ 121 ].

a. Preparation of the inoculums

Considering the inoculums preparation, Muth suggested that there is no difference between freshly-prepared inoculums and a frozen preparation [ 28 ]. The use of solid culture media limits the growth of colonies and adherent biofilms. Moreover, it can also confer properties to the cells that are not expressed in liquid media. In addition, some studies have also pointed out that low molecular weight agar-agar-derived polysaccharide materials can be taken at the same time as cells [ 104 , 122 ]. The size of the inoculums may also have an effect on the apparent activity of the antimicrobial agent. The inoculum must have an appropriated size, enough for allowing the reduction evaluation [ 123 ].

b. Adjustment of the inoculum

The cell density will affect several of the biological properties of bacterial suspensions during tests of antimicrobial activity. In order to normalize the cell densities in the inoculum, it is often needed to, first, concentrate the cells and, after, dilute them in solutions until the desired concentration is reached. When cultures are in liquid medium, the concentration of the cells is achieved either applying centrifugation or by membrane filtration. The conditions used during centrifugation subject cells to high hydrostatic forces that can provoke damage at the cellular level. For some species, a significant proportion of the initial cell population is killed by centrifugation, especially when they are collected in the logarithmic growth phase [ 122 ].

c. Cell harvesting

In his work, Orth detected a decrease in the antimicrobial activity of the inoculums prepared in a broth, comparatively to the one observed with a saline solution of cells cultured on agar [ 107 ]. The procedures of harvesting the cells can be extremely damaging. Thus, changes in the suspension medium, osmolarity, temperature, and pH at the same time have been reported as affecting the cell viability. Bacterial cells have a remarkable ability to adapt their phenotypes to the extremes of the physicochemical environment when the exposure is progressive, however, if the same conditions are suddenly imposed, the cells will not survive [ 122 ].

d. Used formulation

The chemical and biological activities of a preservative can be influenced by the overall formulation of the product. Surfactants, nonionic in particular, can influence the activity of preservatives, especially in oil-based emulsions. In addition, the buffer system and the water activity may also have effect on the preservative mode of action. The level of solids present in a formulation can also affect the effectiveness of a preservative [ 28 ]. The type of container used for conditioning a cosmetic product will influence the concentration and activity of a preservative [ 89 ].

e. Microbial count

The used culture media have a direct effect on the antimicrobial efficacy test of preservatives. It is well established that some media, while capable of sustaining the growth of normal microbial cells, are incapable of supporting the growth of stressed microorganisms [ 124 ]. In addition to the nutrient properties of culture media, the temperature and extent of incubation are important factors for the carrying on of microorganism proliferation [ 28 ]. Additionally, some authors recommend at least three repetitions of the plate counting. Errors in sampling, dilution, and the use of uncalibrated pipettes must be considered [ 125 ].

4. Synthetic Chemical Preservatives

This section will discuss the most used preservatives in cosmetics listed in Annex V of the Regulation (EC) No. 1223/2009. It is worth mentioning that, in the following section, the nitrogen compounds, formaldehyde releasers, isothiazolinones, and the quaternary ammonium compounds will be enclosed in different classes due to their specific properties. The nitrogen compounds used as preservatives according to Annex V of the EU Directive are: zinc pyrithione, triclocarban, piroctone olamine, chloroacetamide, hexamidine, dibromohexamidine isethionate, dimethyloxazolidine, climbazole, iodopropynyl butylcarbamate, 7-ethylbicyclooxazolidine, and ethyl lauroyl arginate hydrochloric acid [ 4 ].

Currently, the cosmetic industry suffers from a considerable lack of less-toxic preservatives, with regulations updating the limits of their use periodically. For this reason, there is considerable interest in finding effective and safe alternative preservatives. Future alternatives seek a broad spectrum against microorganisms with a better safety profile. Compounds with good antimicrobial properties and low toxicity, such as plant extracts, are interesting future alternatives. In addition, the development of preservative-free products is also of particular interest today.

4.1. Different Chemical Classes

The most commonly used antimicrobial preservatives are presented in Figure 3 . These can be divided according to their chemical composition, namely: organic acids, alcohols, and phenols, aldehydes, and formaldehyde releasers, isothiazolinones, biguanides, quaternary ammonium compounds (QAC), nitrogen compounds, heavy metal derivatives, and inorganic compounds. Detailed information about the mechanism of action of these antimicrobial preservatives is given below.

Chemical structures of some preservatives used in cosmetics.

4.1.1. Organic Acids

The organic acids are active if the carbon number of the alkyl chains is high, decreasing, however, their solubility in water. pH is considered to be a major determinant of the organic acids’ effectiveness because it affects the concentration of formed undissociated acids [ 126 ]. Uncharged molecules are those forms that enable the penetration of organic acids into the cell, however, the antimicrobial efficacy of most organic acids is presented by their dissociated form [ 127 ]. The acidic pKa of these preservatives should be controlled since a pH change of 1.5 or more above the neutrality may cause the progressive loss of antimicrobial activity [ 128 ].

The most important organic acids referred in the Annex V are: benzoic acid, propionic acid, salicylic acid, sorbic acid, dehydroacetic acid, formic acid, undecylenic acid, citric acid, and sodium hydroxymethylaminoacetate [ 4 ]. In 2014, the European Commission added the mixture of citric acid and silver citrate to Annex V and allowed its use as a preservative up to a maximum concentration of 0.2% corresponding to 0.0024% of silver. It should not be used in oral and eye products [ 129 ].

4.1.2. Alcohols and Phenols

From the chemical structure of the phenols, it has been observed that: (1) the para-substitutions of the alkyl chain with six carbon atoms increases their antibacterial activity. In addition, linear para-substituents provide higher activity than branched chain substituents containing the same number of carbon atoms [ 128 ]. On the other hand, Park et al. [ 130 ] reported that the activity does not depend on the length of the para-substituted phenol side chain; (2) the halogenation increases the antibacterial activity of the phenols. When the alkyl group is in the ortho position and the halogen is in the para position, the phenols will have greater antibacterial activity; (3) nitration has the advantage of increasing the activity with respect to bacteria by the modification of the oxidative phosphorylation; (4) in the bisphenol series, the activity is linked with the two C 6 H 5 rings which are separated by -CH 2 -, -S-, or -O- groups. If the groups are -CO-, -SO-, or -CH (OH)-, the antimicrobial activity drops. Furthermore, it has been found that the halogenation of bisphenols and the presence of the hydroxyl groups in the 2,2′-position contribute to the antimicrobial activity of the bisphenols [ 128 ].

The preservatives of this class, which are included in the positive list, are: parabens, triclosan, chlorobutanol, o-phenylphenol, chlorocresol, chloroxylenol, phenoxypropanol, benzylhemiformal, phenoxyethanol, dichlorobenzyl alcohol, benzyl alcohol, o-cym-5-ol, chlorophene, chlorphenesin, and bromochlorophene [ 4 ].

In 2013, benzyl alcohol was included in Annex V [ 131 ]. Moreover, an amendment was published in the Official Journal on 9 April 2014, which also limits triclosan to a maximum concentration of 0.2% in mouthwashes and 0.3% in special cosmetic products, such as toothpaste, hand soaps, body soaps, and face powders [ 132 ]. In these amendments, five parabens were added to the prohibited substances list in cosmetic products described in Annex II: isopropylparaben, isobutylparaben, phenylparaben, benzylparaben, and pentylparaben. Furthermore, hydroxybenzoic acid and its salts and esters—other than the esters mentioned above—are limited to a maximum concentration of 0.4% as acid for a single ester, and 0.8% for mixtures of esters [ 132 ].

Commission Regulation (EU) No. 1004/2014 inserted some changes in Annex V, which allows using butylparaben, propylparaben, sodium propylparaben, sodium butylparaben, potassium butylparaben, and potassium propylparaben at a maximum concentration of 0.14% (as acid) for the sum of the individual concentrations, and 0.8% (as acid) for mixtures of substances mentioned in entry 12 and 12a, where the sum of the individual concentrations of butyl- and propylparaben and their salts does not exceed 0.14%. However, in the same document, the use of these preservatives is prohibited in leave-on products designed for application on the diaper of children under three years of age [ 133 ].

4.1.3. Aldehydes and Formaldehyde Releasers

Formaldehyde known as oxymethylene or formalin (37% concentrated solution of formaldehyde) is a preservative used in shampoos, shower gels, and liquid soaps. It is free or bound with formaldehyde releasers and it is not allowed in Japan [ 134 ]. Formaldehyde donors slowly release formaldehyde by degradation or decomposition under use conditions [ 135 ]. The antimicrobial activity of these preservatives probably results from formaldehyde released by hydrolysis in the presence of water [ 136 ]. Formaldehyde releasers are regulated on the basis of their formaldehyde release content [ 137 ]. A study carried out by Lv et al. [ 138 ] on eight formaldehyde-releasing preservatives, reported that formaldehyde release is dependent on the matrix, pH, storage time, and, above all, temperature. The positive list of Annex V includes: formaldehyde and paraformaldehyde, glutaral, imidazolidinyl urea, diazolidinyl urea, quaternium-15, DMDM hydantoin, bronopol, bronidox, hexetidine, and methenamine [ 4 , 139 , 140 ].

4.1.4. Isothiazolinones

The isothiazolinone activity is related with the thiol and amine groups of their structures. These preservatives are often masked under the chemical names of their mixtures. Their usage is being diminished due to the large number of allergic reactions reported by dermatologists [ 141 ]. A study performed by Xia et al. [ 142 ] on quantitative structure-activity relationships (QSAR) of 22 3-isothiazolinone derivatives against Escherichia coli , showed that sulfur and nitrogen are the active sites of the molecule. Another study, carried out by Rezaee et al. [ 143 ] reported that three (2 H )-isothiazolones substituted at the 5-position with chlorine are most lipophilic to those unsubstituted, and possess higher antifungal activity. Loss of chlorine can reduce antimicrobial activity. Additionally, an appreciable loss of activity is also noted in the presence of nucleophilic reagents (sulfhydryl groups), which suggests the possible elimination of chlorine by such groups [ 144 ].

Commission Regulation (EU) No. 1003/2014 stipulates that the use of the methylchloroisothiazolinone (and) methylisothiazolinone mixture is incompatible with the use of methylisothiazolinone alone in the same product because the 3:1 ratio allowed for the mixture would be modified [ 145 ]. On 22 July 2016, methylisothiazolinone was banned in leave-on products [ 146 ]. After 6 July 2017, the maximum authorized concentration of methylisothiazolinone was greatly reduced in rinse-off products (0.0015%) [ 147 ].

4.1.5. Biguanides

The biguanides are a family of compounds known for their antimicrobial activities; they are used not only as antiseptics but also as preservatives [ 3 ]. Baker et al. [ 148 ] studied the structural determinants of the activity of some biguanides against the human oral flora. They revealed the following features: (1) alkyl chains can enhance antimicrobial activity over chlorophenyl groups; (2) the most lipophilic biguanides are the most active; (3) the antimicrobial activity increases as a function of the bridge length of the methylenes with a minimum bridge length of six carbon atoms; and (4) biguanides with terminal branches are more active than those with unbranched terminals. The biguanides allowed by the European Directive are chlorhexidine and polyaminopropyl biguanide [ 4 ].

4.1.6. Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (QAC)

Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) mainly represent cationic surfactants. They are the most used antiseptics and disinfectants [ 149 ]. QACs may be considered as organically-substituted ammonium compounds, wherein the nitrogen atom has a valence of five; whereas four of the substituent radicals (R1 to R4) which are alkyl or heterocyclic radicals, and the fifth (X-) is a small anion. The antimicrobial activity of the QACs is a function of the length of the N -alkyl chain, which confers lipophilicity. Thus, for a QAC to have high microbicidal activity, at least one of the R groups must have a chain length in the C8 to C18 range [ 128 ]. The optimum activity against Gram-positive bacteria and yeast is obtained with chain lengths of 12 to 14 alkyls, while optimum activity against Gram-negative bacteria is obtained with chain lengths of 14–16 alkyls. Compounds with N-alkyl chain lengths <4 or >18 are virtually inactive [ 123 , 150 ].

The European directive Annex V, includes the following quaternary ammonium compounds: Alkyl (C12-22) trimethyl ammonium bromide and chloride (behentrimonium chloride, cetrimonium bromide, cetrimonium chloride, laurtrimonium bromide, laurtrimonium chloride, steartrimonium bromide, steartrimonium chloride), and benzalkonium chloride [ 4 ]. Regulation (EU) No. 866/2014 amended the use of cetrimonium chloride, steartrimonium chloride, and behentrimonium chloride at higher concentrations for rinse-off hair products, leave-on hair products, and leave-on face products [ 129 ].

4.1.7. Nitrogen Compounds

Nitrogen is the most electronegative of all elements in Group V; this tends to impart a high degree of reactivity to the list of covalently bound nitrogen contributors. For discussion purposes, these can be divided into two groups: the first one corresponds to those that appear to react directly with a sensitive biological molecule, resulting in an inactive (or non-functional) end-product; and the second one is an adduct which combines with a sensitive site of the cell, resulting in the former inactivation [ 144 ].

Kabara et al. [ 151 ] performed a study about the relationship between chemical structure and antimicrobial activity of alkyl amides and amines. The authors concluded that: (1) Gram-positive bacteria are more sensitive than Gram-negative ones to the action of amines; (2) substituted amides of C8 to C12 are most active; (3) for N -amide to C18, addition of one epoxy group appears to contribute more to antimicrobial activity than unsaturation or halogenation. However, the addition of a second epoxy group does not improve this activity; (4) the lower alkyl amide of C12 is more active than those of a longer chain, and the addition of a second amide group at position 9 or 10 of the amide alkyl seems to increase antimicrobial activity.

Regarding the structures containing the pyridine moiety, these are excellent antimicrobials, due to the structural similarity with nicotinamide and pyridoxal [ 144 ]. Zinc pyrithione is a pyridine derivative and it was shown that the metallization of this compound greatly increased its biocidal action. Thus, the functional group N -hydroxythioamide of zinc pyrithione plays an important role in the molecular mechanisms of its biological action [ 152 ]. The electron withdrawing group, such as chlorine, improves the activity of isoxazole and pyridine. However, the electron-donating group, such as ethoxy, increases the strength of the compounds in the para position [ 153 ].

Considering the ethyl lauroyl arginate HCl, this compound was added to the positive list of preservatives in Annex V in 2013, its use being allowed to a maximum concentration of 0.4% (M1). Moreover, in 2016 a new amending done to Annex V allowed of the use of the ethyl lauroyl arginate HCl in mouthwashes (with restriction for children less than 10 years) [ 154 ].

4.1.8. Heavy Metal Derivatives

Metal derivatives of mercury and silver are used as preservatives in cosmetics (thimerosal and phenylmercuric salts as organomercury compounds and silver chloride, according to Annex V) [ 4 ]. A central metal ion binds to the atoms of the donor ligands—such as O, N, and S—through often strong and selective interactions. Among the most important characteristics of metals is their ability to take part in redox reactions [ 155 ]. The heavy metals are toxic. They react with the proteins by complexing with the thiol groups (-SH), thus causing their inactivation [ 156 ].

4.1.9. Inorganic Compounds

This class is represented by inorganic sulfites and bisulphites (Annex V). The most important factor that affects the antimicrobial activity of sulfites is pH. Sulfur dioxide and its associated salts exist as a pH-dependent mixture during aqueous dissolution [ 157 , 158 ].

4.2. Analytical Methods Used to Determine Preservatives

The protection of consumer’s health is the major concern of the institutional regulations, when the determination and establishment of the preservatives concentration limits are conducted. Despite the relatively high number of preservatives used in cosmetics, and the respective restrictions, there are a lack of formal analytical methods to control their presence in these products. In addition to the large number of substances to be monitored, the wide range of chemical structures and the variety of complex matrices present a major challenge for the development of reliable analytical methods [ 159 ].

Traditionally, the methods for the preservatives evaluation in cosmetics were mainly based on liquid chromatography with UV detection. Thin layer chromatography and electrophoretic methods have also been commonly used as separation techniques, in the development of identification and quantification methods [ 137 , 159 ]. The choice of the chromatography method is generally based on the physicochemical properties of the analytes. Liquid chromatography is chosen to determine the more polar and less volatile compounds, while gas chromatography is used to quantify the volatile components. Some study preservatives are derivatized using silylation or acylation reagents [ 160 ].

HPLC-based methods are still the most widely used in the literature for the analysis of more than one class of preservatives. In particular, methods based on reverse-phase liquid chromatography with columns C8 and C18 are the most commonly reported. Although UV detectors are the most popular ones, other detectors have also been used, such as mass spectrometry (MS), chemiluminescence (CL), electrochemical (EC), and so on [ 24 , 159 , 160 ]. The schema presented in Figure 4 summarizes the steps followed in the analysis of cosmetic preservatives from the sample treatment to the analytical methods.

Steps followed in the analysis of cosmetic preservatives from the sample treatment to the analytical methods [ 137 , 159 , 160 ] where: µECD: microelectron capture detector; APCI: atmospheric pressure chemical ionization; APPI: atmospheric pressure photoionization; BA: benzoic acid; BRP: bronopol; BRX: bronidox; BzOH: benzyl alcohol; BZs: benzoates other than sodium benzoate; CE: capillary electrophoresis; CLD: chemiluminescent detection; DAD: photodiode array detection; DART: direct-analysis-in-real-time; DHA: dehydroacetic acid; EC (D): electrochemical (detector); EI: electron impact; ELISA: enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; ESI: electrospray ionization; FIA: flow injection analysis; FID: flame-ionization detector; GC: gas chromatography; HLB: divinylbenzene/n-vinylpyrrolidone copolymer; HPCE: high-performance capillary electrophoresis; HPLC: high-performance liquid chromatography; ICP: inductively-coupled plasma; IPBC: iodopropynyl butylcarbamate; IU: imidazolidinyl urea; LC: liquid chromatography; MCI: methylchloroisothiazolinone; MEKC: micellar electrokinetic chromatography; MI: methylisothiazolinone; MIP: molecular imprinted polymer; MIPDI: microwave-induced plasma desorption ionization; MS: mass spectrometry; MWCNTs: multi-walled carbon nanotubes; PB: parabens; PhEtOH: phenoxyethanol; SA: salicylic acid; SOA: sorbic acid; TCC: triclocarban; TCS: triclosan; TD: thermal desorption; UHPLC: ultra-high performance liquid chromatography; UPLC: ultra-performance liquid chromatography; UV: ultraviolet; UV–VIS: ultraviolet–visible.

4.3. Toxicity of Chemical Preservatives

The use of preservatives can induce undesirable effects for consumers, which can appear either after first contact or after years of cosmetic use. These effects range from mild irritation of the skin to estrogenic activity and, in the latest, it can be related with the mammary tumors inducing [ 137 , 161 , 162 , 163 ]. After perfumes, preservatives represent the second largest group of allergens most frequently implicated in cosmetic allergy [ 164 ]. There is a direct link between the antimicrobial effect and the ability to induce toxicity. This may explain why the most effective preservatives are often those with the greatest toxicity potential [ 165 ].

The European authorities have continuously updated the use of preservatives. The French National Agency of Medicine and Health Products Safety, has banned the manufacture, import, export, and marketing of cosmetic products containing chloroacetamide [ 166 ]. The Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety recommended new lower concentration limits for propylparaben and butylparaben, which it found to have “a low endocrine-modifying potential” [ 167 ]. On the other hand, triclosan was limited to a few cosmetic products at 0.3% and for mouthwashes at 0.2% [ 132 ]. In 2016, the use of methylisothiazolinone was banned [ 146 ], after a few months the European Commission published a new regulation limiting its use in rinse-off products to a maximum concentration of 0.0015% [ 147 ]. In June 2017, a draft Regulation was published by the European Commission which proposed to classify formaldehyde in Annex II (Prohibited Substances) of Regulation No. 1223/2009 on cosmetic products [ 4 ]. For this, the use of chemical preservatives as ingredients in finished products is subject to rigorous regulatory oversight in the different regions. The preservative safety test should include screening for acute toxicity, eye irritation, primary skin irritation, skin sensitivity, and basic mutagenicity test data. The sources of toxicity information for various preservatives are different, for example, the PCPC in the United States, which publishes safety reports known as the Cosmetic Ingredient Review (CIR) on the basis of independent scientific groups. Thus, Cosmetics Europe—The Personal Care Association is a similar professional association in Europe [ 168 ].

Typically, contact dermatitis (CD) is an eczematous reaction, usually to a substance applied to the surface of the skin. CD affects approximately 20% of the population in the United States [ 161 , 169 ]. Pathophysiologically, CD can be divided into allergic contact dermatitis reactions (affects 6% of the general population) and irritant contact dermatitis reactions [ 170 , 171 ].

When developing a new preservation system or selecting an existing preservation system for a cosmetic product, four main areas related to the assessment of consumer safety and risk assessment should be addressed: (1) hazard identification: potential toxic effects associated with a given material in preclinical and clinical assessments; (2) dose-response assessment: understanding the relationship between dose and effect incidence; (3) exposure: the actual use of the product by the consumer. In fact, the extent, duration, frequency and route of exposure can have a significant impact on the toxicity of a compound; and (4) risk characterization:placing the known hazards of an agent in the context of human exposure [ 168 ].

4.4. Selection of Appropriate Preservatives

Successful preservation depends on several factors that affect the antimicrobial efficacy and physicochemical stability of antimicrobial agents [ 30 ]. Overall, an ideal preservative should be stable, compatible, effective at low levels, non-toxic, consistent with cosmetic legislation, and non-expensive [ 137 ].

4.4.1. Stability

Several factors may influence the stability of preservatives such as solubility and partition in oil/water (O/W) or water/oil (W/O) emulsions, formulation pH, and temperature during use, and the volatility of the preservative [ 8 , 100 ]. A good preservative must have a good O/W partition coefficient, since this will allow enhancing its activity in the aqueous phase of the formula [ 6 ]. In O/W emulsions, lipophilic preservatives, such as parabens, may be distributed in the lipid phase, and the product actually becomes unpreserved. Additionally, the distribution of preservatives in stacked products can compromise in situ efficiencies [ 30 ]. Thus, pH is an important parameter that can influence the stability of preservatives, either by provoking their decomposition or by modifying their conservative activity [ 5 , 6 ]. Parabens are, for example, ineffective in alkaline formulations due to their dissociation at this pH. Bronopol also undergoes slow decomposition at high pH. The effect of water on preservatives is very important. Formaldehyde donors may undergo slow decomposition in aqueous media. In contrast, the action of salts or alcohols depends on the osmotic effect [ 5 ].

4.4.2. Compatibility

A suitable preservative must be compatible with the chemical compounds of a cosmetic formulation such as surfactants, solvents, dyes, perfumes, and other promotional additives [ 24 ]. In this regard, several preservatives will be inactivated by the antagonistic effect of certain cosmetic ingredients. Formaldehyde is influenced by many types of organic compounds, such as surfactants and nonionic proteins, and can lead to undesired side reactions in the formulation [ 5 ]. The antimicrobial activity of certain preservatives, such as parabens, may be altered, in particular, by non-ionic surfactants. On the other hand, the presence of high concentrations of solid minerals (carbonates and silicates, among others) or organic solids (cellulose and starch) causes absorption of preservatives. Talc, for example, decreases the antimicrobial activity of more than 90% of methylparaben [ 28 ]. In contrast, components, such as polyols and sunscreen active ingredients, can produce a synergistic effect with some preservatives [ 30 ]. EDTA is known for its synergy with several chemical preservatives; it disrupts the external lipid layer of bacteria and increases the penetration of other antimicrobial compounds into the cell [ 6 ].

Physical compatibility is also important. The addition of a preservative can influence the appearance of the cosmetic product and, for this reason, must be tasteless, odorless, and colorless [ 137 ]. The type of container used to package a cosmetic product will influence the concentration and activity of preservatives. Generally, lipophilic preservatives are associated with a greater risk of absorption by containers. Some containers are not compatible with certain preservatives, such as nylon with parabens or polyethylene with certain phenolic compounds, mercurial, and benzoates [ 28 ]. The influence of some cosmetic constituents on preservation is given in Table 2 .

Influence of some cosmetic constituents on preservation.

4.4.3. Safety

A great part of preservatives have a low molecular weight, and thus can cause reactions of intolerance during the use of cosmetics. In general, the cosmetic industry has a major concern in finding effective and non-toxic substances [ 137 , 169 ]. Additionally, the safety factors and risks associated with the handling of antibacterial agents during manufacture must be considered [ 24 ].

However, sometimes the manufacturers do not respect the allowed concentrations of preservatives. Examples of these situations include the recovery of 24 cosmetic products because they contained methylisothiazolinone (0.025–0.36%), methyldibromo glutaronitrile, triclosan (0.4%), and benzalkonium chloride (1%), these concentrations being above the limits authorized by European Regulation 1223/2009. In another situation, 15 cosmetic products were recalled due to the presence of methyldibromo glutaronitrile, a preservative forbidden in cosmetics. Another product contained benzalkonium chloride at a concentration 10-fold higher than the maximum allowed. Moreover, 32 cosmetic products were recalled because they contained formaldehyde (0.3–25%) in concentrations above the established limits [ 2 ].

4.4.4. Compliance with Cosmetic Legislation

The European Union and Japan regulate the use of the preservatives by a positive list published by official guidelines. In the European Union, the Annex V of the Regulation (EC) No. 1223/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 November 2009, lists the authorized preservatives and their maximum concentration in ready for use preparation [ 4 ]. In Japan, Annex 3 of the “Standards for Cosmetics” of the Ministry of Health and Welfare (No. 331 of 2000) lists all preservatives authorized to be incorporated into cosmetics [ 134 ].

In the United States, there is no positive list of preservatives. The producer must take an autonomous responsibility for the safety of cosmetic products. The Cosmetic Ingredient Review (CIR) expert panel reviews and evaluates the safety of cosmetic ingredients. The CIR is an independent panel of industry-funded medical and scientific experts that meets quarterly to assess the safety of cosmetic ingredients based on the published literature, as well as others that are voluntarily funded by the cosmetic industry [ 173 ].

4.4.5. Cost

The cost of cosmetic ingredients is a very important factor in their marketing. As a result, the industry still uses cheaper ingredients, rather than expensive ones [ 174 ]. The cost of cosmetics is influenced by several factors, including the cost of the raw material used, the costs of production, delivery, and marketing of the product. As a result, many cosmetics manufacturers and ingredient suppliers have turned to emerging markets such as ASEAN (Association of South East Asian Nations), Latin America, India, and China. The prices of products in these countries is relatively low, however, the increasing demand generate a growing price on the whole market. This has resulted in the need for many manufacturers to reduce their product prices in order to remain competitive. Customers in the ASEAN cosmetic industry are also able to choose low-cost alternative ingredients from local suppliers [ 175 ]. Now, the most important criteria that determine the selection of raw materials used are costs, market value, and availability. For example, several ingredients are used because of their availability and low cost, such as starch and many scleroproteins [ 176 ]. Overall, many consumers have shifted away from luxury brands to lower-quality products, including consumer and private-label products, particularly the “under-30” category [ 177 ]. The cost of active ingredients, such as antimicrobials, is not always a disadvantage on the marketing of the cosmetic product. A good example is handwashing with soap, in particular, which has been identified as the most cost-effective measure for disease control in various health promotion campaigns [ 178 , 179 ]. Studies have shown that hand washing could save more than a million lives annually from diarrheal diseases and respiratory infections, which are two of the leading causes of child mortality in developing countries. Even in developed countries, hand washing could prevent the spread of infectious viruses [ 178 , 180 ].

4.5. Preservative Mechanisms of Action

Unlike antibiotics, which act on specific sites of biosynthetic processes of microorganisms, preservatives act on multiple targets [ 104 , 181 ]. However, at sub-inhibitory concentrations, preservatives may act on a single target, what can lead to the development of resistance in microorganisms [ 182 ]. Preservatives can penetrate the cell envelope of Gram-negative bacteria by three routes: (1) the hydrophilic pathway, through porins; (2) the hydrophobic pathway by the lipid bilayer; and (3) self-promoting, which involves the displacement of divalent cations that bind adjacent lipopolysaccharide (LPS) molecules, thereby disrupting the structure of the outer membrane and exposing the phospholipid bilayer areas [ 182 ].

4.5.1. Organic Acids

Organic acids have a broad antimicrobial spectrum. The individual activity of each acid varies according to several intrinsic or extrinsic factors, including pH variation [ 126 ]. Organic acids inhibit the growth of microorganisms by several mechanisms, including: (1) acidification of the external environment making it unfavorable to microbial growth; examples of acids used for this end are formic, acetic, propionic, butyric and benzoic acids [ 183 ]; (2) acidification of the cytoplasm by the penetration of uncharged organic acids into cells where the internal pH induces their dissociation into anions that consequently decreases the internal pH; this affects the isoelectric pH (pHi) of the functional enzymes involved in glycolysis, cell signaling and active transport, and proton-motor force (organic acids, e.g., propionic acid, benzoic acid, formic acids, sorbic acids) [ 126 ]; (3) changing the fluidity of the plasma membrane, this is typically achieved by medium- or long-chain organic acids (e.g., sorbic acids) [ 126 , 184 ]; (4) chelation and elimination of key nutritional trace elements or metal ions of the microbial shell by their complexation with negatively-charged anionic acids [ 183 ]; and (5) inhibition of enzymes from the cellular metabolism, such as the inhibition of fumarase, aspartase, and succinate dehydrogenase by sorbic acid, or inhibition of the active transport of some amino- and oxo acids by benzoic acid [ 126 , 182 , 183 ].

4.5.2. Alcohols and Phenols

Alcohols and phenols are substances with effective antimicrobial properties. Their action is bactericidal, especially with acid-resistant bacilli. The mechanism of action of alcohol is related with the denaturation of proteins or inhibition of protein synthesis by several mechanisms [ 185 ]. Santos et al. [ 186 ] showed the impact of phenol-induced stress of Pseudomonas putida KT2440 on the relative abundance of proteins involved in the oxidative stress response, in the metabolism of lipids, amino acids, energy, nucleotides, and in division and cellular motility.

At low concentrations, benzyl alcohol and phenoxyethanol may induce membrane lysis in bacteria. Thus, they can denature the structure of proteins by binding to amino acid residues [ 187 , 188 ]. Phenoxyethanol also dissipates proton-motor force at low concentrations. O -phenylphenol inhibits the peptidoglycan biosynthesis by the inhibition of lysine biosynthesis in S. aureus [ 189 ]. At low concentrations, triclosan inhibits the enzymes of bacterial fatty acid biosynthesis (FabI or InhA (2-trans-enoyl-acyl carrier protein reductase) in Mycobacterium spp.) by forming a non-covalent complex with NAD + of FabI [ 190 ]. However, at high concentrations, it induces a leakage of K + leading to cell lysis by effects on RNA and protein synthesis [ 191 , 192 ]. In turn, the mechanisms of action of parabens are considered to be: (1) the inhibition of protein synthesis (including key enzymes, such as ATPases and phosphotransferases), by reacting with free amino acids, especially glutamic acid and aspartic acid [ 193 ]; (2) the inhibition of the synthesis of DNA and RNA [ 194 ]; (3) the influence on the transport of nutrients through the membrane [ 195 ]; (4) the interaction with mechanosensitive channels by allowing leakage of cytoplasmic contents [ 196 ]; and (5) the inhibition of oxygen consumption of mitochondria in fungi [ 197 ].

4.5.3. Aldehydes and Formaldehyde Releasers

Aldehydes can react with chemical groups (amino, carboxy, thiol, hydroxyl, imino, and amide substituents) on biomolecules, including proteins and DNA. The crosslinking of proteins with formaldehyde leads to protein aggregation, resulting in irreversible chemical modification that leads to inhibition of metabolism and cell division [ 182 , 198 ].

Formaldehyde releasers act against bacterial cells by liberating formaldehyde in the medium. Despite this, the formaldehyde releasers can also react and undergo decomposition [ 199 , 200 ]. Generally, their biocidal effect is due to the proteins cell crosslinking, as well as RNA and DNA crosslinking. Kireche et al. [ 199 ] demonstrated that the reactivity of some formaldehyde releasers (DMDM hydantoin, bronopol, and methenamine) with amino acids and proteins is not related to the formaldehyde release. The antimicrobial activity of bronidox and bronopol is due to their oxidation of protein thiol causing inhibition of enzymatic activity and subsequent inhibition of microbial growth [ 201 ].

4.5.4. Isothiazolinones

The isothiazolinones are oxidizing agents and their activity is due to their oxidizing effects on proteins, in particular on the thiol groups of the cysteine residues. This feature results in the inhibition of enzyme metabolism, as well as dysfunction of structural proteins in the cell wall and membrane [ 188 ].

4.5.5. Biguanides

Among the biguanides, chlorhexidine is a positively-charged compound that binds to the negatively-charged membrane and bacterial wall resulting in significant damage. It promotes its own absorption so that it can reach its cellular targets. At low concentrations, it can lead to the loss of osmoregulatory and metabolic capacity, while, at very high concentrations, it can lead to a complete loss of membrane integrity and cause cytoplasmic coagulation [ 181 , 182 ].

4.5.6. Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (QAC)

The QACs exert their antimicrobial activity by destabilizing the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane of bacteria or yeasts and the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacilli, through association of the positive charge of quaternary nitrogen with the main polar groups of phospholipids (negatively-charged). The hydrophobic (alkyl chain) tail of the QACs acts later on the hydrophobic core of the membrane (the fatty acid chains) and destabilizes the interactions between the lipids and the membrane proteins [ 150 ]. The effects of QACs are based on their concentration, where: (1) at low concentrations, they induce a loss of osmogulatory capacity of the ions; (2) at intermediate concentrations, they disrupt membrane-associated systems such as respiration, solute transport and cell wall biosynthesis; and (3) at high concentrations, they solubilize the cell membrane components by forming micellar aggregates [ 123 ]. In summary, the antimicrobial activity of QACs mainly involves the rupture of membrane integrity and the leakage of cellular contents [ 202 ]. QACs can also denature structural proteins and enzymes by inducing ultrastructural changes [ 150 ]. Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide has an effect on DNA by binding to nucleic acids, provoking their precipitation [ 203 ].

4.5.7. Nitrogen Compounds

Among the nitrogen compounds, zinc pyrithione has a broad spectrum of antibacterial and antifungal activities. Its mechanism of action consists of: (1) inhibition of transport through the membrane and membrane depolarization; (2) inhibition of the transmembrane proton motor force; and (3) acting as a metal complex [ 204 , 205 ].

Regarding triclocarban, this compound inhibits the growth of many Gram-positive bacteria, including MRSA and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus, but it is not active against Gram-negative bacteria. However, fungi proved to be more resistant [ 128 , 206 ]. Triclocarban is an anilide that can act on the membrane by destroying its semi-permeable character. It also induces lysis of protoplasts in ammonium chloride by increasing the permeability to Cl [ 207 ].

In the case of piroctone olamine, is an antifungal compound with ability to reduce microbial colonization of Malassezia spp. [ 208 ]. It can penetrate the cell membrane and form complexes with iron (Fe 2+ and Fe 3+ ), by inhibiting energy metabolism in the mitochondria of target fungi [ 209 ].

4.5.8. Heavy Metal Derivatives

Regarding the silver ions, these can cause: (1) inhibition of respiration by the interaction of silver with the thiol groups of the respiratory chain enzymes [ 210 ]; (2) membrane damage [ 211 ]; (3) reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and interference with DNA replication [ 212 ]; and (4) the destruction of the proton motor force [ 213 ].

4.5.9. Inorganic Compounds

Considering the inorganic compounds preservative mechanism, in particular sulfites derivatives, bacteria are the most sensitive. Additionally, sulfites are active against acetic acid bacteria, lactic acid bacteria, and Gram-negative enteric pathogens [ 214 ]. SO 2 ·H 2 O diffuses passively through the microbial membrane [ 157 ]. The mechanisms of action of sulfites is related with: (1) reaction with cellular adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and/or (2) blocking of cystine disulfide bonds, leading to the inhibition of several cellular metabolism enzymes (including glycolysis) [ 158 ].

4.6. Microorganism’s Mechanisms of Resistance to Preservatives

Preservatives are used in cosmetics at low concentrations to minimize the risk of toxicity to consumers. However, this small quantity represents the major factor in the appearance of the resistance phenomenon in microorganisms. In addition, contamination rate, target type, temperature, environmental conditions, and contact time are other factors affecting microbial resistance. Preservative resistance may be considered as the inactivation of the preservative agent, the reduction in preservative efficacy, or a tolerance of microorganisms [ 215 ]. Generally, bacterial endospores (including Bacillus and Clostridium ) are the most resistant forms. In contrast, mycobacteria (due to cell wall composition) are more resistant than Gram-negative bacteria being, however, Gram-positive bacteria most sensitive to preservatives [ 182 ].

Much research has been conducted to better understand the emergence of resistance to preservatives, recognized as a global problem limiting their use. Recent attention to current barriers and efforts on potential solutions, such as alternative models, are the basis for robust solutions. The development of new antimicrobials is crucial to fight resistance phenomena. Since there is a strong correlation between the use of preservatives and resistance development, alternative preservation forms, such as the ones based on emergent natural products, are necessary. In addition, establishing direct links between the fundamental axes of eco-evolutionary dynamics and the interactions between microbial species constitute future research needs, essential to tackle the problem of antimicrobial resistance.

4.6.1. Organic Acids

The mechanisms of microorganism resistance to organic acids can be related to: (1) degradation of the organic acid; for example sorbic acid may be degraded to 1,3-pentadiene by some species of Penicillium , and benzoic acid is metabolized by several species of Pseudomonas and by Acinetobacter calcoaceticus [ 216 ]; (2) Adaptation of the microorganisms to the acid medium (the yeasts only adapt to small chain fatty acids), may be by using the H + -ATPase pump (i.e., proteins from the cell plasma membrane responsible by the molecules transport from or into cells; in this case, they transport the protons (H + ) to maintain the pH), by the accumulation of the anions to buffer acid pH, or by the synthesis of acid shock proteins [ 183 ].

4.6.2. Alcohols and Phenols

The most studied preservatives of this class are triclosan and parabens. Several mechanisms of microorganisms’ resistance to triclosan are the following: (1) modification of the target of triclosan (FabI) in E. coli [ 217 ]; (2) activation of the efflux pump (transmembrane proteins that provide active pumping, by consuming ATP energy, to evacuate unwanted molecules inside the cells. They operate by non-specific mechanisms in E. coli [ 218 ], Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium [ 219 ], Acinetobacter baumannii [ 220 ], Campylobacter jejuni [ 221 ], and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia [ 222 ]; and (3) swarming motility [ 223 ]. The microorganisms are resistant to parabens by: (1) enzymatic inactivation after hydrolysis to 4-hydroxybenzoic acid by esterase [ 224 ]; (2) superexpression of efflux pump genes [ 225 ]; and possibly (3) by porin deficiency [ 226 ].

4.6.3. Aldehydes and Formaldehyde Releasers

Only two mechanisms of resistance have been revealed for formaldehyde: impermeability of cells and enzymatic inactivation. Mycobacteria can reduce the permeability of glutaraldehyde by changing monosaccharides of the arabinogalactan and arabinomannan fractions [ 227 ]. Thus, the permeability of glutaraldehyde can be reduced by the lipopolysaccharides of Gram-negative bacteria. Moreover, bacteria can resist formaldehyde via enzymatic degradation carried out by formaldehyde dehydrogenases [ 228 ].

4.6.4. Biguanides

Lipopolysaccharides from Gram-negative bacteria represent a barrier to the permeability of chlorhexidine [ 229 ]. Efflux pumps are the most widely reported mechanism of chlorhexidine resistance [ 230 ]. The QACA protein (quaternary ammonium compounds A protein) is the most widely studied QAC effluent systems and it has been associated with an increased tolerance to chlorhexidine [ 181 ].

4.6.5. Quaternary Ammoniums Compounds (QAC)

The external membrane and lipopolysaccharides of Gram-negative bacteria can be responsible for the high intrinsic resistance to QACs [ 182 ]. P. aeruginosa modifies the outer membrane ultrastructure by changing its fatty acid composition and phospholipids [ 231 ].

The mechanisms of resistance of microorganisms to QACs are different and it can be specified as follows: (1) reduction of the porins expression of the outer membrane (outer membrane proteins: OmpC, OmpF, and OmpA) [ 219 ]; (2) a mutational superexpression of the efflux pump genes, in particular, genes of QacA/B, QacC/D, Ebr, QacG, QacH, QacEΔ1, QacJ, multidrug efflux A (MdeA), norfloxacine A or B (ANorA, NorB), and multidrug export protein A (MepA) in S. aureus , acriflavine (AcrAB-TolC, AcrEF-TolC), YhiUV-TolC, EmrE, YdhE, MdfA, OqxAB, and TehA in E. coli , NorM in Neisseria spp., MdrL and Lde in L. monocytogenes , SdeXY in Serratia marcescens , or PmpM in P. aeruginosa [ 150 , 182 , 232 ]. The genes of these proteins can be expressed only for QACs or for other antimicrobial agents by cross-resistance [ 233 ].

4.6.6. Heavy Metal Derivatives

Enzymatic inactivation is known as a mechanism of resistance in microorganisms by reduction to inactive metal. Organomercurial lyase (MerB) is an enzyme that cleaves the carbon-mercury bond in organomercurial compounds [ 234 ]. In addition, efflux pumps (e.g., MerE, MerC, and MerF) are another mechanism of resistance to organomercurials [ 213 ].

5. Conclusions

The antimicrobial efficacy is considered the main function of a cosmetic preservative. However, the inherent toxicity of these ingredients is a problem that the cosmetic industry should be concerned about. Therefore, it is necessary to continue the search for non-toxic and effective preservatives. The regulations limit, or even prohibit, the use of the most potent preservatives due to their toxicity and, in parallel, require uncontaminated cosmetic products. As a result, cosmetics manufacturers are seeking new preservation strategies to avoid regulatory requirements and, at the same time, to present a more secure product in terms of microbiological and toxicological aspects. On the other hand, a preservative has a restricted spectrum of activity depending on the target species and the forms of the microorganisms (spores, mycobacteria, Gram-negative bacteria, Gram-positive bacteria, yeasts, molds) which encourages manufacturers to use mixtures of them. In conclusion, cosmetic microbiologists face a great challenge looking for new alternative molecules by suitable criteria, new systems, or improved strategies of those already implemented.

Author Contributions

All the authors collaborated in the writing/review of the present paper and approved its submission.

The authors are grateful to the Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT, Portugal) and FEDER under Program PT2020 for financial support to CIMO (UID/AGR/00690/2013), S.A. Heleno (SFRH/BPD/101413/2014), and P. Costa (SFRH/BPD/101413/2014). This work was also financially supported by Project POCI-01-0145-FEDER-006984–Associate Laboratory LSRE-LCM funded by FEDER through COMPETE 2020-Programa Operacional Competitividade e Internacionalização (POCI)–and by national funds through FCT.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Islamic Art History Research Network (IAHRN)

2nd Annual Islamic Art History Research Workshop, 5th–6th December, 2024

Building on the success of the first hybrid Islamic Art History Research Workshop,  held in York and online last November, the second one is being held on the 5th and 6th of December this year. The event is being expanded to include a keynote lecture on the 6th December (speaker TBC) and this announcement is also a call for paper proposals for scholars as all career stages, and for those who wish to attend the event in York and speak in person, and those who want to present online.  

The aim of combining online and hybrid events is to make the event accessible to the largest possible number of scholars and members of the public, and to have as diverse a range of voices, topics and approaches as possible. 

There is are no thematic, geographical, chronological or methodological restrictions, and we invite proposals for 20-minute presentations based on your current research on any aspect of Islamic art history. The deadline for submissions is the 20th October 2024. Please indicate in your proposal if you prefer online or in person, and please note that those attending the in-person event on the 6th of December will be responsible for organising their travel and accommodation. 

Please send your proposals to: 

[email protected]

[email protected]

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Call for Papers: The Applied History of Strategic Communication

Download the call for papers here .

In today’s connected society, scholars and policymakers are acutely aware that information flows are crucial to political outcomes. However, strategic communication has long been an essential dimension of statecraft. Ancient historians documented how rhetoric settled debates and inspired action; emperors minted coins and erected monuments to communicate their power to subjects and posterity.

While there are broad historical continuities in the use of information for political ends, strategic communication has evolved with new developments. The invention of the printing press in the fifteenth century profoundly impacted political affairs by undermining information monopolies and increasing the quantity and availability of information. In modern times, democratization made it imperative to communicate effectively with mass audiences, while totalitarian regimes used propaganda to shape attitudes and behavior. In recent years, the emergence of digital technologies–including the Internet, social media, and artificial intelligence–has presented states with new opportunities, but also new risks. Concerns about disinformation and malign information operations now cast a shadow on discussions about the information and communications revolution.

This special issue aims to apply historical insights to these challenges, seeking to produce a historically informed understanding of the strategic role of communication in statecraft. Research papers between 4,000 and 8,000 words on a wide range of contexts–Western and non-Western, from ancient to modern–are invited. Thematically, the focus should be on the political functions, uses, and effects of communication, rather than purely technological or commercial aspects.

Article Topics

Submissions on a broad range of topics are welcome, including but not limited to:

• Case studies of relevant historical precedents to phenomena such as disinformation, propaganda, information warfare, the political role of communication and rhetoric, and the political impact of new communication technologies. What role have these phenomena played during key historical episodes, and what lessons can be drawn for today? What can history teach us about the challenges they pose and how they should be managed?
• Histories of strategic communication phenomena that are central today, such as the ones mentioned above. How did these phenomena arise and develop into what they now are? What factors explain their development?
• Historical case studies of leaders or states that have been effective or otherwise significant communicators. What can be learned from their examples? What historical examples exist of how communication has been used to accomplish important political objectives? When have new forms or technologies of communication been skillfully used?
• Article pitches (abstracts of around 500 words) together with author bio should be sent to [email protected] no later than November 1, 2024.
• Authors of articles selected for inclusion notified by November 8, 2024.
• Full articles submitted by June 1, 2025.
• Peer review completed by September 1, 2025.
• Revised articles submitted by October 1, 2025.

About the Journal

The Journal of Applied History (JOAH) offers a platform for historians to bring the results of their historical research to bear on the present, on the issues that (should) concern us today. It seeks to promote historical thinking as an essential element of discussions about the challenges that our societies are now confronted with. Historical thinking involves first and foremost a keen eye for context in the broadest sense: an awareness of the social, economic, cultural, political, demographic, and environmental conditions within which the historical process unfurls, which prompts us to move beyond easy, rhetorically appealing, but often lazy analogies between past and present that obscure the complexity and idiosyncrasy of discrete events. By acknowledging the similarities and differences between seemingly analogous events, we can achieve a better understanding of the situations before us today. If we want to mine the past as a reservoir of “good” and “bad” practices from which to draw inspiration, a critical historical approach is needed. Furthermore, historical thinking is necessary if we are to get to the root of the issues, concerns, crises, and narratives that are shaping contemporary society, as well as to develop informed speculations about what may lie ahead. Finally, historical thinking, particularly in the form of comparisons between past and present, can help interrogate those key assumptions that might seem self-evident today and to illuminate the striking features, struggles, and challenges facing our contemporary societies.

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