bowlby experiments

John Bowlby’s Attachment Theory

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

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John Bowlby (1907 – 1990) was a psychoanalyst (like Freud) and believed that mental health and behavioral problems could be attributed to early childhood.

Key Takeaways

• Bowlby’s evolutionary theory of attachment suggests that children come into the world biologically pre-programmed to form attachments with others, because this will help them to survive.
• Bowlby argued that a child forms many attachments, but one of these is qualitatively different. This is what he called primary attachment, monotropy.
• Bowlby suggests that there is a critical period for developing attachment (2.5 years). If an attachment has not developed during this time period, then it may well not happen at all. Bowlby later proposed a sensitive period of up to 5 years.
• Bowlby’s maternal deprivation hypothesis suggests that continual attachment disruption between the infant and primary caregiver could result in long-term cognitive, social, and emotional difficulties for that infant.
• According to Bowlby, an internal working model is a cognitive framework comprising mental representations for understanding the world, self, and others, and is based on the relationship with a primary caregiver.
• It becomes a prototype for all future social relationships and allows individuals to predict, control, and manipulate interactions with others.

Evolutionary Theory of Attachment

Bowlby (1969, 1988) was greatly influenced by ethological theory, but especially by Lorenz’s (1935) study of imprinting .  Lorenz showed that attachment was innate (in young ducklings) and therefore had a survival value.

During the evolution of the human species, it would have been the babies who stayed close to their mothers that would have survived to have children of their own.  Bowlby hypothesized that both infants and mothers had evolved a biological need to stay in contact with each other.

Bowlby (1969) believed that attachment behaviors (such as proximity seeking) are instinctive and will be activated by any conditions that seem to threaten the achievement of proximity, such as separation, insecurity, and fear.

Bowlby also postulated that the fear of strangers represents an important survival mechanism, built-in by nature.

Babies are born with the tendency to display certain innate behaviors (called social releases), which help ensure proximity and contact with the mother or attachment figure (e.g., crying, smiling, crawling, etc.) – these are species-specific behaviors.

These attachment behaviors initially function like fixed action patterns and share the same function. The infant produces innate ‘social releaser’ behaviors such as crying and smiling that stimulate caregiving from adults.

The determinant of attachment is not food but care and responsiveness.

Bowlby’s monotropic theory

A child has an innate (i.e., inborn) need to attach to one main attachment figure (i.e., monotropy).

Bowlby’s monotropic theory of attachment suggests attachment is important for a child’s survival.

Attachment behaviors in both babies and their caregivers have evolved through natural selection. This means infants are biologically programmed with innate behaviors that ensure that attachment occurs.

Although Bowlby did not rule out the possibility of other attachment figures for a child, he did believe that there should be a primary bond which was much more important than any other (usually the mother).

Other attachments may develop in a hierarchy below this. An infant may therefore have a primary monotropy attachment to its mother, and below her, the hierarchy of attachments may include its father, siblings, grandparents, etc.

Bowlby believes that this attachment is qualitatively different from any subsequent attachments.  Bowlby argues that the relationship with the mother is somehow different altogether from other relationships.

The child behaves in ways that elicit contact or proximity to the caregiver.  When a child experiences heightened arousal, he/she signals to their caregiver.

Crying, smiling, and locomotion are examples of these signaling behaviors.  Instinctively, caregivers respond to their children’s behavior, creating a reciprocal pattern of interaction.

Critical Period

A child should receive the continuous care of this single most important attachment figure for approximately the first two years of life.

Bowlby (1951) claimed that mothering is almost useless if delayed until after two and a half to three years and, for most children, if delayed till after 12 months, i.e., there is a critical period.

If the attachment figure is broken or disrupted during the critical two-year period, the child will suffer irreversible long-term consequences of this maternal deprivation.  This risk continues until the age of five.

Bowlby used the term maternal deprivation to refer to the separation or loss of the mother as well as the failure to develop an attachment.

The underlying assumption of Bowlby’s Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis is that continual disruption of the attachment between infant and primary caregiver (i.e., mother) could result in long-term cognitive, social, and emotional difficulties for that infant.

The implications of this are vast – if this is true, should the primary caregiver leave their child in daycare, while they continue to work?

Maternal Deprivation

Bowlby’s maternal deprivation hypothesis suggests that continual attachment disruption between the infant and primary caregiver (i.e., mother) could result in long-term cognitive, social, and emotional difficulties for that infant.

Bowlby (1988) suggested that the nature of monotropy (attachment conceptualized as being a vital and close bond with just one attachment figure) meant that a failure to initiate or a breakdown of the maternal attachment would lead to serious negative consequences, possibly including affectionless psychopathy.

Bowlby’s theory of monotropy led to the formulation of his maternal deprivation hypothesis.

John Bowlby (1944) believed that the infant’s and mother’s relationship during the first five years of life was crucial to socialization.

According to Bowlby, if separation from the primary caregiver occurs during the critical period and there is no adequate substitute emotional care, the child will suffer from deprivation.

This will lead to irreversible long-term consequences in the child’s intellectual, social, and emotional development.

Bowlby initially believed the effects to be permanent and irreversible:

• delinquency,
• reduced intelligence,
• increased aggression,
• depression,
• affectionless psychopathy

Bowlby also argued that the lack of emotional care could lead to affectionless psychopathy,

Affectionless psychopathy is characterized by a lack of concern for others, a lack of guilt, and the inability to form meaningful relationships.

Such individuals act on impulse with little regard for the consequences of their actions.  For example, showing no guilt for antisocial behavior.

The prolonged deprivation of the young child of maternal care may have grave and far-reaching effects on his character and so on the whole of his future life (Bowlby, 1952, p. 46).

Bowlby believed that disrupting this primary relationship could lead to a higher incidence of juvenile delinquency, emotional difficulties, and antisocial behavior. To test his hypothesis, he studied 44 adolescent juvenile delinquents in a child guidance clinic.

Bowlby 44 Thieves

To investigate the long-term effects of maternal deprivation on people to see whether delinquents have suffered deprivation.

According to the Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis, breaking the maternal bond with the child during their early life stages is likely to affect intellectual, social, and emotional development seriously.

Between 1936 and 1939, an opportunity sample of 88 children was selected from the clinic where Bowlby worked. Of these, 44 were juvenile thieves (31 boys and 13 girls) who had been referred to him because of their stealing.

Bowlby selected another group of 44 children (34 boys and 10 girls) to act as ‘controls (individuals referred to the clinic because of emotional problems but not yet committed any crimes).

On arrival at the clinic, each child had their IQ tested by a psychologist who assessed their emotional attitudes toward the tests. The two groups were matched for age and IQ.

The children and their parents were interviewed to record details of the child’s early life (e.g., periods of separation, diagnosing affectionless psychopathy) by a psychiatrist (Bowlby), a psychologist, and a social worker.  The psychiatrist, psychologist, and social worker made separate reports.

Bowlby found that 14 children from the thief group were identified as affectionless psychopaths (they were unable to care about or feel affection for others); 12 had experienced prolonged separation of more than six months from their mothers in their first two years of life.

In contrast, only 5 of the 30 children not classified as affectionless psychopaths had experienced separations.

Out of the 44 children in the control group, only two experienced prolonged separations, and none were affectionless psychopaths.

The results support the maternal deprivation hypothesis as they show that most of the children diagnosed as affectionless psychopaths (12 out of 14) had experienced prolonged separation from their primary caregivers during the critical period, as the hypothesis predicts

Bowlby concluded that maternal deprivation in the child’s early life caused permanent emotional damage.

He diagnosed this as a condition and called it Affectionless Psychopathy. According to Bowlby, this condition involves a lack of emotional development, characterized by a lack of concern for others, a lack of guilt, and an inability to form meaningful and lasting relationships.

Bowlby directly observed parental separation’s harm in evacuating children from bombing during WWII, strengthening his hospital research indicating it profoundly impacts children’s emotional and behavioral development.

Limitations

The supporting evidence that Bowlby (1944) provided was in the form of clinical interviews of, and retrospective data on, those who had and had not been separated from their primary caregiver.

This meant that Bowlby asked the participants to look back and recall separations.  These memories may not be accurate.

A criticism of the 44 thieves study was that it concluded affectionless psychopathy was caused by maternal deprivation.  This is correlational data and only shows a relationship between these two variables. It cannot show a cause-and-effect relationship between separation from the mother and the development of affectionless psychopathy.

Other factors could have been involved, such as the reason for the separation, the role of the father, and the child’s temperament. Thus, as Rutter (1972) pointed out, Bowlby’s conclusions were flawed, mixing up cause and effect with correlation.

Many of the 44 thieves in Bowlby’s study had been moved around a lot during childhood, and had probably never formed an attachment.  This suggested that they were suffering from privation, rather than deprivation, which Rutter (1972) suggested was far more deleterious to the children. This led to a very important study on the long-term effects of privation, carried out by Hodges and Tizard (1989).

The study was vulnerable to researcher bias. Bowlby conducted the psychiatric assessments himself and made the diagnosis of Affectionless Psychopathy. He knew whether the children were in the ‘theft group’ or the control group. Consequently, his findings may have been unconsciously influenced by his own expectations. This potentially undermines their validity.

Bowlby struggled to apply his new maladaptation model to retrospective research on adolescents with conduct problems, as such studies prejudice outcomes by selecting for problems and then looking backward.

Cautious of this, in 1950, Bowlby, Robertson, and new researcher Mary Ainsworth (1956) began a forward-looking “follow-up study” on whether preschoolers who were hospitalized long-term subsequently developed conduct issues.

Assessing 60 such children aged 6-13 and controls, contrary to maternal deprivation hypotheses, they found more emotional apathy, withdrawal, and poor control than criminality.

So, while early prolonged separation impacted some children’s later adjustment, outcomes proved far more varied than Bowlby’s theory initially predicted. The improved prospective methodology highlighted limitations in Bowlby’s previous retrospective approaches.

In the conclusions of the paper Bowlby admitted that his theory regarding the development of conduct problems may be wrong:

It is clear that some of the workers, including the present senior author, in their desire to call attention to dangers which can often be avoided have on occasion overstated their case. In particular, statements implying that children who are brought up in institutions or who suffer other forms of serious privation and deprivation in early life commonly develop psychopathic or affectionless characters (e.g., Bowlby, 1944) are seen to be mistaken. (Bowlby et al., 1956, p. 240)

Short-Term Separation

When WWII ended in 1945, Bowlby had to choose between completing child psychoanalysis training or researching parental separation’s impact on children. He chose the latter, joining colleagues at London’s Tavistock Clinic.

Robertson and Bowlby (1952) believe that short-term separation from an attachment figure leads to distress.

John Bowlby spent two years working alongside a social worker, James Robertson (1952), who observed that children experienced intense distress when separated from their mothers. Even when other caregivers fed such children, this did not diminish the child’s anxiety.

They found three progressive stages of distress:

• Protest : The child cries, screams, and protests angrily when the parent leaves. They will try to cling to their parents to stop them from leaving. Protest could last from a few hours to several days.
• Despair : The child’s protesting gradually stops, and they appear calmer, although still upset. The child refuses others’ attempts for comfort and often seems withdrawn and uninterested in anything. In the despair stage, children become increasingly withdrawn and hopeless.
• Detachment : If separation continues, the child will engage with other people again. All emotions are suppressed, and children live moment-to-moment by repressing feelings for their mother. On the surface, children were seen to be happy and content, but when the mother visited, they frequently ignored her and hardly cried when she left. If this state continues, children become so withdrawn as to seek no mothering at all – a sign of major psychological trauma.

Controversy arose between Bowlby and Robertson regarding the stages of separation, particularly the third stage, which Robertson termed denial, but Bowlby called detachment.

However, both powerfully influenced attitudes and practices around keeping mothers and children together. This led to advocacy for allowing parental presence and major reforms in hospital policies.

A Two-Year-Old Goes to Hospital

Though doctors saw the despair phase as adjustment, Bowlby felt it showed distress’s harm.

To demonstrate this, Robertson filmed two-year-old Laura’s distress when hospitalized for eight days for minor surgery in “ A Two-Year-Old Goes to Hospital ” (1952).

Time series photography showed the stages through which a small child, Laura, passed during her 8-day admission for umbilical hernia repair. The film graphically depicted Laura’s behavior while separated from her mother for a period of time in strange circumstances” (Alsop-Shields & Mohay, 2001).

Laura cries out for her mother from admission onward, pleading in anguish to go home when visited the second day. As the week progresses, her initial constant distress gives way to listlessness and detachment during the parents’ increasingly ambivalent visits.

However, when approached by hospital staff, Laura startles out of her trance to suddenly burst into tears and fruitlessly call for her mother once more.

The raw behaviors captured on film revealed the three-phase separation response of protest, despair, and detachment observed in Bowlby and Robertson’s prior research.

Laura’s suffering starkly contradicts expectations of childrens’ ready hospital adjustment, instead demonstrating their deep distress from both physical separation and the hospital environment itself.

These findings contradicted the dominant behavioral theory of attachment (Dollard and Miller, 1950), which was shown to underestimate the child’s bond with their mother.  The behavioral theory of attachment states that the child becomes attached to the mother because she feeds the infant.

Implications for nursing include the development of family-centered care models keeping parents integral to a child’s hospital care in order to minimize trauma, principles now widely implemented as a result of this pioneering work on attachment.

Internal Working Model

The child’s attachment relationship with their primary caregiver leads to the development of an internal working model (Bowlby, 1969).

This internal working model is a cognitive framework comprising mental representations for understanding the world, self, and others.

The social and emotional responses of the primary caregiver provide the infant with information about the world and other people, and also how they view themselves as individuals.

For example, the extent to which an individual perceives himself/herself as worthy of love and care, and information regarding the availability and reliability of others (Bowlby, 1969).

Bowlby referred to this knowledge as an internal working model (IWM), which begins as a mental and emotional representation of the infant’s first attachment relationship and forms the basis of an individual’s attachment style.

A person’s interaction with others is guided by memories and expectations from their internal model which influence and help evaluate their contact with others (Bretherton & Munholland, 1999).

Working models also comprise cognitions of how to behave and regulate affect when a person’s attachment behavioral system is activated, and notions regarding the availability of attachment figures when called upon.

Bowlby (1969) suggested that the first five years of life were crucial to developing the IWM, although he viewed this as more of a sensitive period rather than a critical one.

Around the age of three, these seem to become part of a child’s personality and thus affect their understanding of the world and future interactions with others (Schore, 2000).

According to Bowlby (1969), the primary caregiver acts as a prototype for future relationships via the internal working model.

There are three main features of the internal working model: (1) a model of others as being trustworthy, (2) a model of the self as valuable, and (3) a model of the self as effective when interacting with others.

It is this mental representation that guides future social and emotional behavior as the child’s internal working model guides their responsiveness to others in general.

The concept of an internal model can be used to show how prior experience is retained over time and to guide perceptions of the social world and future interactions with others.

Early models are typically reinforced via interactions with others over time, and become strengthened and resistant to change, operating mostly at an unconscious level of awareness.

Although working models are generally stable over time they are not impervious to change and as such remain open to modification and revision.  This change could occur due to new experiences with attachment figures or through a reconceptualization of past experiences.

Although Bowlby (1969, 1988) believed attachment to be monotropic, he did acknowledge that rather than being a bond with one person, multiple attachments can occur arranged in the form of a hierarchy.

A person can have many internal models, each tied to different relationships and different memory systems, such as semantic and episodic (Bowlby, 1980).

Collins and Read (1994) suggest a hierarchical model of attachment representations whereby general attachment styles and working models appear on the highest level, while relationship-specific models appear on the lowest level.

General models of attachment are thought to originate from early relationships during childhood, and are carried forward to adulthood where they shape perception and behavior in close relationships.

Attachment & Loss Trilogy

The attachment books trilogy developed key concepts regarding attachment, separation distress, loss responses, and clinical implications over the course of the three volumes.

Attachment (1969/1982)

• Provided evidence for the importance of early parent-child relationships.
• Analyzed the systemic and “goal-corrected” nature of behavior.
• Introduced the concept of an “environment of adaptedness” that organisms inherit a potential to develop systems suited for.
• Discussed how attachment behaviors in infants are components of an attachment system designed to achieve security.
• Explained how attachment behaviors change via feedback from caregivers, becoming oriented toward discriminated figures.
• Posited attachment as a foundational system for survival that interacts with other systems like exploration.

Separation (1973)

• Focused on the negative impacts of separation from attachment figures.
• Outlined phases of separation responses in infants and children.
• Analyzed short- and long-term pathological effects of loss or deprivation.
• Studied how mourning progresses in relation to attachment bonds.
• Linked separation distress and avoidance to later issues of delinquency.

Loss (1980)

• Explored the concept of “loss” in relation to attachment theory.
• Proposed stages of the mourning process.
• Studied outcomes following the loss of an attachment figure.
• Examined detachment and defense processes resulting from loss.
• Applied attachment theory understanding to treatment approaches.

Critical Evaluation

Implications for children’s nursing.

• During Robertson and Bowlby’s research, the British government established a parliamentary committee investigating children’s hospital conditions. This resulted in the 1959 Platt Report, containing 55 recommendations, including allowing parental presence and provisions for their accommodation and children’s education/recreation (Alsop-Shields & Mohay, 2001).
• Robertson also specifically critiqued task-oriented nursing and childcare institutions (Robertson, 1955, 1968, 1970) as emotionally neglectful. He and Bowlby suggested dysfunctional families be kept together but supported (Robertson & Bowlby, 1952) – principles now accepted but decades ahead of their time.
• Robertson and Bowlby’s work has greatly influenced the development of family-centered pediatric nursing models like partnership-in-care and family-centered care in the 1990s. By planning care around the whole family unit rather than just the hospitalized child, and involving parents closely in care, these models aim to reduce emotional trauma for children.

Bifulco et al. (1992) support the maternal deprivation hypothesis. They studied 250 women who had lost mothers, through separation or death, before they were 17.

They found that the loss of their mother through separation or death doubles the risk of depressive and anxiety disorders in adult women. The rate of depression was the highest in women whose mothers had died before the child reached 6 years.

Mary Ainsworth’s (1971, 1978) Strange Situation study provides evidence for the existence of the internal working model. A secure child will develop a positive internal working model because it has received sensitive, emotional care from its primary attachment figure.

An insecure-avoidant child will develop an internal working model in which it sees itself as unworthy because its primary attachment figure has reacted negatively to it during the sensitive period for attachment formation.

Bowlby’s Maternal Deprivation is supported by Harlow’s (1958) research with monkeys .  Harlow showed that monkeys reared in isolation from their mother suffered emotional and social problems in older age.  The monkey’s never formed an attachment (privation) and, as such grew up to be aggressive and had problems interacting with other monkeys.

Konrad Lorenz (1935) supports Bowlby’s maternal deprivation hypothesis as the attachment process of imprinting is an innate process.

Bowlby’s (1944, 1956) ideas had a significant influence on the way researchers thought about attachment, and much of the discussion of his theory has focused on his belief in monotropy.

Although Bowlby may not dispute that young children form multiple attachments, he still contends that the attachment to the mother is unique in that it is the first to appear and remains the strongest.  However, the evidence seems to suggest otherwise on both of these counts.

• Schaffer & Emerson (1964) noted that specific attachments started at about eight months, and very shortly thereafter, the infants became attached to other people. By 18 months, very few (13%) were attached to only one person; some had five or more attachments.
• Rutter (1972) points out that several indicators of attachment (such as protest or distress when an attached person leaves) have been shown for various attachment figures – fathers, siblings, peers, and even inanimate objects.

Critics such as Rutter have also accused Bowlby of not distinguishing between deprivation and privation – the complete lack of an attachment bond, rather than its loss.  Rutter stresses that the quality of the attachment bond is the most important factor, rather than just deprivation in the critical period.

Bowlby used the term maternal deprivation to refer to the separation or loss of the mother as well as the failure to develop an attachment.  Are the effects of maternal deprivation as dire as Bowlby suggested?

Michael Rutter (1972) wrote a book called Maternal Deprivation Re-assessed .  In the book, he suggested that Bowlby may have oversimplified the concept of maternal deprivation.

Bowlby used the term “maternal deprivation” to refer to separation from an attached figure, loss of an attached figure and failure to develop an attachment to any figure.  These each have different effects, argued Rutter.  In particular, Rutter distinguished between privation and deprivation.

Michael Rutter (1981) argued that if a child fails to develop an emotional bond , this is privation, whereas deprivation refers to the loss of or damage to an attachment.

Deprivation might be defined as losing something that a person once had, whereas privation might be defined as never having something in the first place.

From his survey of research on privation, Rutter proposed that it is likely to lead initially to clinging, dependent behavior, attention-seeking, and indiscriminate friendliness, then as the child matures, an inability to keep rules, form lasting relationships, or feel guilt.

He also found evidence of anti-social behavior, affectionless psychopathy, and disorders of language, intellectual development and physical growth.

Rutter argues that these problems are not due solely to the lack of attachment to a mother figure, as Bowlby claimed, but to factors such as the lack of intellectual stimulation and social experiences that attachments normally provide.  In addition, such problems can be overcome later in the child’s development, with the right kind of care.

Bowlby assumed that physical separation on its own could lead to deprivation, but Rutter (1972) argues that it is the disruption of the attachment rather than the physical separation.

This is supported by Radke-Yarrow (1985), who found that 52% of children whose mothers suffered from depression were insecurely attached. This figure raised to 80% when this occurred in a context of poverty (Lyons-Ruth,1988). This shows the influence of social factors. Bowlby did not take into account the quality of the substitute care. Deprivation can be avoided if there is good emotional care after separation.

Is attachment theory sexist?

Feminist critics argue Bowlby’s attachment theory is sexist for overly emphasizing mothers as ideal caregivers while neglecting other influences like fathers (e.g., Vicedo, 2017).

His popular 1950s parenting articles reinforced gender roles by proclaiming mothers uniquely important and always available. Critics also attacked his concept “monotropy” – instincts focused on one caregiver, presumably the mother.

However, Bowlby’s academic writings use phrases like “mothers or foster-mothers,” adoptive mothers, and “mother substitutes,” acknowledging many can serve as primary caregiver.

He never scientifically stated only biological mothers suffice. While “monotropy” poorly implies a singular caregiver, Bowlby meant children form one main attachment, not only to mothers. So academically, Bowlby did not limit caregivers to mothers, though his public emphasis on maternal deprivation and parenting did reinforce gender biases.

There are implications arising from Bowlby’s work.  He reinforced the idea that a mother should be the most central caregiver and that this care should be given continuously. An obvious implication is that mothers should not go out to work.  There have been many attacks on this claim:

• Mothers are the exclusive carers in only a very small percentage of human societies; often there are a number of people involved in the care of children, such as relations and friends (Weisner, & Gallimore, 1977).
• Van Ijzendoorn, & Tavecchio (1987) argue that a stable network of adults can provide adequate care and that this care may even have advantages over a system where a mother has to meet all a child’s needs.
• There is evidence that children develop better with a mother who is happy in her work, than a mother who is frustrated by staying at home (Schaffer, 1990).

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Further Reading

• The Internal Working Models Concept: What Do We Really Know About the Self in Relation to Others?
• The Effects of Maternal Deprivation
• Davies, R. (2010). Marking the 50th anniversary of the Platt Report: from exclusion, to toleration and parental participation in the care of the hospitalized child .  Journal of Child Health Care ,  14 (1), 6-23.
• Bowlby, J. (1963). Pathological mourning and childhood mourning .  Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association ,  11 (3), 500-541.

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Anxious Attachment

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Avoidant Attachment

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Disorganized Attachment

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Secure Attachment

The 5 conditions for secure attachment

What Is Attachment Theory?

Do you know your attachment style take our attachment quiz and find out now – fast, easy, free., in this page you’ll find:.

• The foundation of attachment theory
• The attachment classification system
• The stages of attachment
• The emotional skills we learn from attachment
• Relationships from an attachment perspective
• rief overview of our guidelines for attachment classification
• Influence on other fields and future directions

The History of Attachment Theory

Attachment theory owes its inception primarily to John Bowlby (1907-1990). Trained in psychoanalysis in the 1930s, Bowlby was not entirely satisfied with his studies. From his perspective, psychoanalysis focused too much on our internal world, and consequently ignored the environment we are immersed in [1].

During the early years of his career, Bowlby worked in a psychiatric hospital as he was also trained in developmental psychology and child psychiatry. In fact, it was in this hospital where he found the inspiration for his subsequent innovative work on attachment.

He observed that two children under his care displayed marked differences in behaviors. One child was notably distant and emotionless, while the other was constantly in his vicinity – so much so, that others started to refer to the child as Bowlby’s “shadow” [1].

Bowlby was later mentored by Melanie Klein, a highly influential name in the field, whom he later publicly disagreed with theoretically. The basis of this disagreement centered on Klein’s belief that children’s emotional problems arise solely from internal processes. In contrast to this belief, Bowlby postulated that children’s emotional problems actually arise from how they interact with their environment growing up [1].

A principal aspect of Bowlby’s later career was his focus on mother-child separation issues. He was strongly influenced by Konrad Lorenz’s work, which showed how attachment is instinctual. From Lorenz’s theory, Bowlby gleaned that a newborn baby does not solely need their mother for food, but instead desires the caregiver-child connection that builds between them [2]. Therefore, Bowlby sought to understand what would happen to children when this essential need was not met.

Bowlby’s Attachment Theory

In essence, Bowlby’s attachment theory posits that attachment bonds are innate [1]. When a child’s immediate need for a secure attachment bond is not met, the child feels threatened and will react accordingly, such as by crying or calling out for their caregiver. Moreover, if the need for a stable bond is not met consistently, the infant can develop social, emotional, and even cognitive problems.

This need for attachment has catalyzed our understanding of human nature, leading up to Roy Baumeister and Mark Leary’s claim that belongingness is an essential human need, much like shelter or water [3].

The Anxious-Avoidant Spectrum

From Bowlby’s initial observations of the children with two highly distinctive behaviors at the psychiatric hospital, a spectrum of attachment behaviors came to life. We can visualize this spectrum holding attachment anxiety on one side and attachment avoidance on the other.

Given certain triggers and subsequent behaviors, one can gravitate toward either side of the spectrum. For example, an anxious attacher who hasn’t heard from their partner for a couple of hours is likely to trigger anxious attachment behaviors such as texting or calling their partner incessantly. In this case, they have demonstrated to be most certainly on the anxious side of the spectrum.

However, as was to be soon discovered through research, this anxious-avoidant spectrum didn’t fully account for the behavioral differences observed in children. There was still some information missing. Let’s dive into how attachment theory developed further.

Ainsworth and Attachment Theory: The Strange Situation

Mary Ainsworth (1913-1999) – considered to be the second founder of the field of attachment – furthered the development of Bowlby’s theory. Ainsworth crucially contributed to attachment theory with the concept of a secure base [1]. In her view, a child needs an established secure base, or dependence, with their caregivers before venturing into the exploration of the world around them.

The Strange Situation is perhaps the most well-known of Ainsworth’s main contributions [4]. The study was designed to look at the association between attachment and infants’ exploration of their surroundings.

• Children between the ages of 12 and 18 months from a sample of 100 typical American families were observed in the Strange Situation.
• A small room was set up with a one-way glass window designed to covertly observe the actions of the child. The room was filled with toys, and at first, it was just the infant and their mother.
• The Strange Situation consisted of eight steps, each of which lasted approximately 3 minutes:
• Mother and infant alone.
• A stranger enters the room.
• The mother leaves the baby and stranger alone.
• The mother returns.
• The stranger leaves.
• The mother leaves and the child is left alone.
• The stranger returns.
• Mother returns and the stranger exits.

The aim of the Strange Situation was to observe the infant’s exploratory behavior with their mother, in her absence, as well as in the presence of a stranger. This was one of the main experiments to drive the establishment of an attachment classification system. It allowed for the distinction between a child’s ambivalent and dismissing behaviors upon reuniting with their mother [1,5].

The Attachment Classification System

From the Strange Situation, Ainsworth developed the Strange Situation Classification (SSC) , which is the cornerstone of how we categorize attachment styles today. Ainsworth distinguished three attachment styles:

Secure – the child displays distress when separated from the mother, but is easily soothed and returns their positive attitude quickly when reunited with them.

Resistant – the child displays intense distress when the mother leaves but resists contact with them when reunited.

Avoidant – the child displays no distress when separated from their mother, as well as no interest in the mother’s return.

Adding Disorganized Attachment

Ainsworth had several Ph.D. students working with her – one of whom became notorious for their significant contributions to attachment theory .

Namely, Mary Main observed a unique behavior in one infant: in a moment when the infant was frightened by thunder, they surprisingly ran towards the experimenter instead of their own mother.

Based on this interaction, Main decided to focus her research on identifying peculiar behaviors such as this, leading to the identification of the fourth element in the classification of attachment: the disorganized attachment style – which incorporated both resistant and dismissing behaviors [6,7,8].

The attachment spectrum (Figure 1) stemmed from both Bowlby’s and Ainsworth’s contributions to the theory.

The Stages of Attachment

In the 1960s, Rudolph Schaffer and Peggy Emerson identified that human social connections start at birth, and that the bond between an infant and caregiver only grows stronger over time. Furthermore, attachment styles also develop over time, and this was illustrated in the four stages that Schaffer and Emerson developed in 1964 [9].

Their study was conducted in such a way that babies were followed-up through interviews with their mothers, every 4 weeks throughout their first year after birth, and then one more time at 18 months. Their research resulted in the development of the following stages:

Asocial Stage 0-6 weeks. Babies don’t distinguish between humans, although there is a clear preference for humans over non-humans. The infants form attachment with anyone who comes their way.

Indiscriminate Stage 6 weeks – 6 months. The bonds with their caregivers start to grow stronger. Infants begin to distinguish people from one another, and they do not have a fear of strangers.

Specific Attachment Stage 7+ months. This is when separation anxiety becomes prevalent, particularly from their main caregivers or close adults. At this point, infants develop a feeling of distress when surrounded by strangers.

Multiple Attachments Stage 10+ months. Attachment with the infant’s primary caregiver grows even stronger. The infant is increasingly interested in creating bonds with others that are not their caregivers.

Learning Relationship Skills From Attachment

Our main attachment relationships , especially those in our earliest stages of life, have a unique influence on how we handle other relationships later on [10]. An important role that these attachment relationships have is to teach us healthy affect regulation.

Affect regulation, or emotion regulation, is the extent to which we can experience emotions and process these in a healthy way.

Emotion regulation is especially important when we encounter negative experiences. As infants, these negative experiences are a key opportunity to cultivate this skill. It is also in these moments that we learn how, or to what extent, we can rely on our caregivers to support us [11]. Thus, if we don’t feel protected or understood by our caregivers, this can teach us that they are not reliable sources of safety or love.

Moreover, we learn emotion regulation and relationship skills directly through our caregivers’ behaviors. Basically, we mirror our caregivers’ actions; for instance, if we notice that our cries bring about distress in our caregiver, we feel greater distress in return [12]. Thus, an infant develops a sense of self by assessing their impact on their surroundings. If their caregivers consistently react to the child negatively or neglect them in some way, the child will develop a distorted version of themselves and their capacity to interact with their environment [12].

Relationships Through the Lens of Attachment Theory

Today, attachment theory is regularly applied to a vast array of relationships, but this was not always the case. In the 1980s, Cindy Hazan and Philip Shaver introduced their views on attachment, arguing that its classification system could be applied to romantic relationships as well as the original caregiver-child format [10]. Their argument relied on the premise that relationships/love take many shapes and forms, and an attachment reaction typically follows.

With this perspective in mind, we can begin to see how attachment is not a static aspect of ourselves – it fluctuates depending on a specific relationship and situation. While we do have our first encounter with an attachment relationship at birth, with our caregivers, this is not the only relationship that will influence how we relate to others. From childhood onwards, the people closest to us all have an impactful role in our development.

What Is an Attachment Bond?

An attachment bond is one that we establish with the closest people in our lives, typically, our caregivers, close family, or intimate partners.

Therefore, not every relationship we have will have an attachment bond. Instead, these bonds form in the relationships with people that we need, such the ones that fulfill basic physical needs (e.g. food and shelter), or emotional needs (e.g. the need to belong).

Attachment bonds or attachment figures are the connections whose absence causes us the most suffering. For this reason, losing an attachment bond is a highly distressing experience, which is usually marked by anxiety and sadness.

However, loss can feel very different depending on the type of relationship and bond that was developed. On the flip side, reuniting with an attachment figure after some time apart can bring about immense happiness and joy, and even a sense of relief.

Our Classification of Attachment

From the inception of attachment theory onwards, vast amounts of research and studies have been conducted and published by renowned professionals. At The Attachment Project, we endeavor to keep abreast of this work and the most recent findings in the field, and use it to guide us in delivering scientifically and theoretically sound information.

Having said as much, and recognizing the evolution of attachment theory, we’ll leave you with a very brief overview of the classification of attachment as we understand it, entirely based on previous work and research:

Secure attachment is characteristic of people who easily trust others. These individuals are attuned to their own emotions and can easily attune to those of others. They are comfortable with intimacy and can easily communicate their thoughts and feelings. The secure attachment is characterized by the ability to:

• Handle conflict calmly
• Feel comfortable both in relationships and on your own
• Differentiate thoughts from feelings
• Maintain a balanced sense of self and confidence

The Conditions for Secure Attachment

Recently, a study designed to specifically examine secure attachment identified the conditions necessary to raise a securely attached child [13].

If these conditions are not met, an insecure attachment style is likely to develop. The five conditions for secure attachment are as follows:

• The child feels safe.
• The child feels seen and known.
• The child feels comfort, soothing, and reassurance.
• The child feels valued.
• The child feels supported to explore.

On the other hand, the following experiences can lead to an insecure attachment to form during childhood:

• Perceived inconsistency: The child feels incoherence in whether their needs are met. This inconsistency can be confusing for the child, who will feel that their caregiver(s) are ultimately unreliable.
• Felt rejection or neglect: Even though the caregiver(s) may not do so purposefully or knowingly, the child feels that their needs, particularly their emotional needs, are not being met. They may feel that they are not appreciated or understood for who they are.
• Sense of fear: A sense of fear can come from truly alarm-inducing situations, such as a traumatic event. However, a sense of fear also arise from seemingly simple situations that induce feelings of rejection, neglect, or that result in the sense of being unloved.

Anxious attachment (or preoccupied) can often be identified in people who essentially have an extra-sensitive nervous system. These individuals may struggle with hyperactivation of emotions, as well as hypervigilance for something going wrong. The scariest thing they can imagine is being abandoned by their loved ones.

Most likely, their attachment anxiety stems from an inconsistent parent who would be attentive at times yet misattuned at other times.

The main signs of anxious attachment are the following:

• Catastrophic thinking, such as picturing things going very wrong, very easily
• A positive view of others, but a negative view of themselves
• Putting great effort into relationships, to the extent of self-sacrifice
• Immense difficulty with receiving criticism and rejection

Avoidant attachment (or dismissive) is often present in individuals who tend to downplay their emotions or dismiss them completely. These people are typically highly independent and self-reliant, and their greatest fear is usually intimacy and vulnerability.

This attachment style tends to develop when caregivers were not emotionally attuned to their child or who were generally emotionally distant.

The main tell-tale signs of an avoidant attacher are:

• Difficulty seeking support and admitting they need help
• Extreme self-reliance and independence
• A tendency to have a positive self-view yet a negative or critical view of others
• Maintaining or increasing distance when others try to connect emotionally

Disorganized attachment (or fearful-avoidant) is typically identified in individuals who have experienced childhood trauma or abuse. [8]. The disorganized attachment style is characterized by demonstrating inconsistent behaviors and having a hard time trusting others.

This style develops in children whose caregivers were a source of perceived fear, instead of safety and connection.

Disorganized attachment can be identified from:

• Inconsistency and unpredictability
• Oscillating between avoidant and anxious behaviors
• Their caregiver, or their main source of safety as infants, was also their main source of fear
• Struggles with intimacy and building trust in others

The Attachment Style Quiz

You may have come across the Attachment Style Quiz on our website – it is our preferred method of individual assessment on attachment styles. The Experiences in Close Relationships – Relationship Structures (ECR-RS) Questionnaire, was originally developed by R. Chris Fraley and is scientifically tested and validated [14,15].

The quiz is free and easy to complete, and you can find out your attachment style in just 5 minutes. There are other assessment alternatives you may want to opt for, which we’ve outlined in our blog post on commonly used attachment style tests. One such recommended measurement is the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) , which must be conducted by a trained professional. If you want to further explore your attachment style, we suggest bringing the materials from our website (your quiz results and any relevant articles) to a mental health practitioner.

Discover your attachment style in just 5 minutes. Receive your report straight away. Totally free!

Influence and Future Directions

Attachment theory has influenced developmental psychopathology, especially the investigation of family relationships, and even the cross-cultural aspects of attachment [1].

At The Attachment Project, we seek to increase mental health awareness through informing our audience about the multiple influences of attachment on various areas of life.

For instance, there is a growing body of work on the association between organizational psychology and attachment theory psychology [20], and that line of research deals with how attachment impacts our behaviors and emotions in the workplace. Moreover, there are multiple links between attachment and a number of mental health concerns, such as eating disorders, addiction, ADHD, ASD, and issues with language development .

Another interesting connection is to be found between attachment and early maladaptive schemas. Maladaptive schemas are, in a nutshell, limiting beliefs that are formed based on repeated patterns of trauma in early childhood. Last but not least, attachment has a profound influence on many aspects of our personal relationships, such as jealousy, loneliness, and compassion.

We are eager to continue exploring the field, with the aim to help you, our readers, learn more about yourselves and gain the necessary insights to build the relationships and lives you truly want and deserve.

Curious to learn more about your attachment style?

Get your digital Attachment Style Workbook to gain a deeper understanding of…

• how your attachment style developed
• how it influences different aspects of your daily life, such as your self-image, romantic relationships, sexual life, friendships, career, and parenting skills
• how you can use the superpowers associated with your attachment style
• how you can begin cultivating a secure attachment

[1] Bretherton, I. (1992). The origins of attachment theory: John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth. Developmental Psychology, 28 (5), 759–775. [2]Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss: Retrospect and prospect. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 52 (4), 664–678. [3] Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117 (3), 497–529. [4] Ainsworth, M. D. S., Wittig, B. A. (1969). Attachment and the exploratory behavior of one-year-olds in a strange situation. In B. M. Foss (Ed.), Determinants of infant behavior (Vol. 4, pp. 113-136). London: Methuen. [5] Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C, Waters, E., Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum [6] Main, M. & Weston, D.R. (1981) The quality of the toddler’s relationship to mother and to father: related to conflict behavior and the readiness to establish new relationships. Child Development, 52(3), 932–40. [7] Main, M. (1999) Disorganized Attachment in Infancy, Childhood, and Adulthood: An Introduction to the Phenomena. Unpublished manuscript, Mary Main & Erik Hesse personal archive; Hinde, R. (1966, 1970) Animal Behavior, 2nd edn. New York: McGraw. [8] Main, M. & Solomon, J. (1986) Discovery of a new, insecure-disorganized/disoriented attachment pattern. In M. Yogman & T.B. Brazelton (eds) Affective Development in Infancy (pp.95–124.) Norwood, NJ. [9] Schaffer, H.R., Emerson, P.E. (1964). The development of social attachments in infancy. Monograph of the Society for Research in Child Development, 29(3), 1-77. [10] Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. (1987). Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(3), 511–524. [11] Buckholdt, K.E., Parra, G.R., Jobe-Shields, L. (2013). Intergenerational Transmission of Emotion Dysregulation Through Parental Invalidation of Emotions: Implications for Adolescent Internalizing and Externalizing Behaviors. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 23, 324-332. [12] Winnicott, D.W. (1971). Mirror-role of Mother and Family in Child Development. Chapter 9 in Winnicott, D.W. (ed.) Playing & Reality. Tavistock Publications. [13] Brown, D. P., & Elliott, D. S. (2016). Attachment disturbances in adults: Treatment for comprehensive repair. WW Norton & Co. [14] Fraley, R. C., Heffernan, M. E., Vicary, A. M., & Brumbaugh, C. C. (2011). The Experiences in Close Relationships—Relationship Structures questionnaire: A method for assessing attachment orientations across relationships. Psychological Assessment, 23(3), 615–625. [15] Fraley, R. C., Niedenthal, P. M., Marks, M. J., Brumbaugh, C. C., & Vicary, A. (2006). Adult attachment and the perception of emotional expressions: Probing the hyperactivating strategies underlying anxious attachment. Journal of Personality, 74, 1163-1190. [16] Keller, H. (2018). Universality claim of attachment theory: Children’s socioemotional development across cultures. PNAS, 115(45), 11414-11419. [17] Bakermans-Kranenburg, M., van Ijzendoorn, M.H. (2009). The fist 10,000 Adult Attachment Interviews: Distributions of adult attachment representations in clinical and non-clinical groups. Attachment & Human Development, 11(3), 223-263. [18] Sprecher, S. (2020). Trends Over Time in Emerging Adults’ Self-Reports on Attachment Styles. Emerging Adulthood, 1-6. [19] Cullen, W., Gulati, G., Kelly, B.D. (2020). Mental health in the COVID-19 pandemic. QJM: An International Journal of Medicine, 113(5), 311-312. [20] Yip, J., Ehrhardt, K., Black, H., Walker, D.O. (2017). Attachment theory at work: A review and directions for future research. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 39(2), 185-198.

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Attachment Theory (Bowlby)

Summary: Attachment theory emphasizes the importance of a secure and trusting mother-infant bond on development and well-being.

Originator and key contributors:

• John Bowlby (1907-1990) British child psychiatrist and psychoanalyst, known for his theory on attachment
• Mary Ainsworth (1913-1999), American psychoanalyst known for the `strange situation`

Keywords: maternal deprivation, internal working model, strange situation, attachment styles

Attachment is described as a long lasting psychological connection with a meaningful person that causes pleasure while interacting and soothes in times of stress. The quality of attachment has a critical effect on development, and has been linked to various aspects of positive functioning, such as psychological well-being [1] .

Maternal Deprivation

Bowlby began his journey to attachment theory through research he conducted on child delinquents and hospitalized children. These studies led him to discuss the negative effects of maternal deprivation, the situation in which the mother was either non responsive or absent for long spans of time within the child’s first two years of life. Bowlby believed that children have an innate need to develop a close relationship with one main figure, usually the mother. When this does not occur, it has negative consequences on development, causing a decline in intelligence, depression, aggression, delinquency, and affectionless psychopathy (a situation in which one is not concerned about the feelings of others) [2] .

Bowlby’s theory on attachment

Following the above conclusions regarding maternal deprivation, Bowlby sought to develop a theory which would support and explain his results. He felt that existing theories on attachment from psychoanalytic and behavioral fields were detached from reality and not up to date, thus he began reading into and corresponding with current researchers in the fields of biology and ethology. One study which was particularly influential on attachment theory was conducted by Harlow & Zimmerman in 1959 [3] . In this study, monkeys were separated from their mothers and put into cages with “surrogate mothers”. One “mother” was made out of wire with an attached bottle, while the other was coated with cloth. The study’s results showed that monkeys chose the cloth mother over the wire mother, even though she did not offer food. These results stand in contrast to classic approaches to attachment which believed that the goal of attachment was the fulfillment of needs, particularly feeding. Bowlby developed his theory on the basis of these results, claiming attachment to be an intrinsic need for an emotional bond with one’s mother, extending beyond the need to be fed. He believed this to be an evolved need, where a strong emotional bond with one’s mother increases chances of survival.

Stages of attachment

Preattachment (newborn-6 weeks): Newborn infants know to act in such a way that attracts adults, such as crying, smiling, cooing, and making eye contact. Although not attached to their mothers yet, they are soothed by the presence of others.

Attachment in making (6 weeks- 6 to 8 months): Infants begins to develop a sense of trust in their mothers, in that they can depend on her in times of need. They are soothed more quickly by their mother, and smile more often next to her.

Clear cut attachment (6 to 8 months- 18 months to 2 years): Attachment is established. The infant prefers his mother over anyone else, and experiences separation anxiety when she leaves. The intensity of separation anxiety is influenced by the infant’s temperament and the way in which caregivers respond and soothe the infant.

Formation of reciprocal relationship (18 months- to years +): As language develops, separation anxiety declines. The infant can now understand when his mother is leaving and when she will be coming back. In addition, a sense of security has developed, in that even when his mother is not physically there, he knows she is always there for him. Bowlby called this sense of security an internal working model.

Attachment styles

Bowlby’s attachment theory was tested using the `strange situation`. Children’s responses to their mother’s presence and absence, and that of a stranger, were recorded [4] . These results served as the basis for the formulation of attachment styles.

Secure attachment – Children who have developed secure attachment feel secure and happy, and are eager to explore their surroundings. They know they could trust their mother to be there for them. Although distressed at their mother’s absence, they are assured she will return. The mother’s behavior is consistent and sensitive to the needs of her child.

Anxious avoidant insecure attachment : Children who have developed an anxious avoidant insecure attachment do not trust their mother to fulfill their needs. They act indifferent to their mother’s presence or absence, but are anxious inside. They are not explorative, and are emotionally distant. The mother’s behavior is disengaged from her child and emotionally distant.

Anxious resistant insecure (ambivalent) attachment – Children who have developed anxious resistant insecure attachment show a mixture of anger and helplessness towards their mother. They acts passively, and feel insecure. Experience has taught them that they cannot rely on their mother. The mother’s behavior is inconsistent. At times she is responsive and at times neglects her child.

Disorganized/disoriented attachment- Children who do not fit into the other categories are included in this fourth form of attachment. These children could act depressed, angry, passive, or apathetical. Their mothers could act in varying extremes, such as swaying between passivity and aggression or being scared and actually being scary.

For more information, please see:

• https://youtu.be/s14Q-_Bxc_U An excerpt from the documentary on hospitalized children which served as the basis for Bowlby’s ideas on maternal deprivation.
• A Secure Base: Parent-Child Attachment and Healthy Human Development  – one of the books written by Bowlby
• Bowlby, J. (2008). Attachment . Basic books.
• Bowlby, J. (1998). Attachment and loss (No. 3). Random House.
• Harlow, H. F., & Zimmerman, R. R. (1959). Affectional Response in the Infant Monke’. Science , 130 (3373), 421-431.
• Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. N. (2015). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation . Psychology Press.

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Bowlby’s Attachment Theory for Beginners

Who is John Bowlby?

John Bowlby (1907-1990) worked as both a psychologist and a psychoanalyst. You may be familiar with the term “psychoanalyst” as being chiefly associated with the work of Sigmund Freud. It consists of the belief that all people possess thoughts, feelings and memories in their unconscious.

Bowlby’s work revolved around his theory that attachments formed in early childhood were vital in the future emotional development of the child. He also believed that people are born with an inherent instinct to form close relationships and attachments to certain figures in order to gain protection and stability.

Bowlby grew up in a household where time spent with his parents was carefully rationed, as they believed that too much affection and attention would spoil their child. As a result, Bowlby was sent to boarding school at the age of seven, an experience which had a very negative effect on him. During and after his studies at Cambridge, Bowlby worked with delinquent and maladjusted children, which led to him deciding to pursue a career as a child psychologist.

As a result of this work, Bowlby became interested in child development and took a special interest in how separation from caring adults affected children. The beginnings of his attachment theory came in 1949 when his employer, the World Health Organisation, asked him to write a report on the mental health of homeless children.

The work took two years to complete and was published under the title “Maternal Care and Mental Health”. In this report, Bowlby stressed the importance of a close and continuous relationship with a mother figure. His training as a psychoanalyst contributed to his belief that the first experiences in life leave a lasting impression on future development.

Bowlby’s work left a lasting impact on his successors, not least on his colleague Mary Ainsworth who continued his work and expanded upon it, devising a way of observing the attachment theory in progress. Other researchers used his work to develop clinical treatments and prevention strategies.

Such was the influence of his work that in 2002, twelve years after his death, Bowlby was ranked 49th in a survey of the twentieth century’s most frequently cited psychologists.

What is Bowlby’s attachment theory?

The attachment theory describes a long-running, continual connection with a person or persons which provides satisfaction during interaction and comfort during difficult times.

This attachment needs to be of a high quality if the child’s emotional development is to be steady and progressive. Bowlby’s theory centres around a single attachment between a child and their caregiver.

This does not rule out the possibility of the child forming more than one attachment to other figures, but attachment theory focuses on the significance of the mother, considering the relationship between mother and child to be unique. He suggested that a lack of maternal attachment would result in serious negative consequences.

Bowlby’s research identified four stages of attachment, with the child progressing to each as they age. Pre-attachment lasts from birth to six weeks. At this stage, the infant is comforted by the presence of others and knows that actions such as crying and cooing are effective in attracting attention.

Attachment in making lasts from the age of six weeks to 6-8 months and sees a sense of trust begin to emerge between the child and the mother. Smiling occurs more frequently during this stage. Between 6-8 months and 18 months to one year of age, clear cut attachment sees attachment established more firmly.

Finally, starting from the age of eighteen months, a reciprocal relationship is formed. A sense of security is in place and the child can now manage periods without their mother present without the risk of separation anxiety. Bowlby termed this sense of security as an interior working model.

The attachment theory states that the first two years of a child’s life are crucial in the development stage. The attachment has to be maintained continuously for this period of time if the child is to develop steadily. If the attachment is disrupted at any point during this stage, the child is exposed to potentially permanent negative cognitive, social or emotional consequences. Bowlby coined the phrase “maternal deprivation” to describe this separation. Potential results of maternal deprivation include delinquency, depression, a reduction in intelligence and an above-average level of aggressiveness.

Bowlby worked with James Robertson to develop the theory that short-term separation resulted in distress for the child. They observed that this distress manifested in three stages: at the protest stage, the child screams, cries or otherwise expresses their desire not to be separated from their attachment figure.

It is at this stage when the child may become clingy. The second stage was termed as “despair” and is characterised by the child ceasing their audible protestations and instead becoming withdrawn, uninterested and consistently refusing all offers of love and support from others.

The final stage is “detachment” and this sees the child begin to adapt to their new surroundings, interacting with other people and a gradual regaining of enthusiasm. However, when the attachment figure comes into contact with them again, the child will display anger and resentment and otherwise reject their original attachment figure.

Attachment theory today

Attachment theory is not without its critics. Some psychologists point to its overlooking of the rest of the family as a major shortcoming. Others have argued that such a focus on a single relationship overlooks social and racial issues which may also be instrumental in the child’s development and personality.

Attachment theory remains precisely that – a theory – but its influence and ability to provide psychologists with a platform on which to build, expand and test their own theories is unmistakable.

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John Bowlby’s Attachment Theory and Developmental Phases

A Comprehensive Guide for Early Years Professionals and Students

John Bowlby’s Attachment Theory is a psychological theory that revolutionised our understanding of child development. Created by British psychoanalyst John Bowlby in the mid-20th century, this theory emphasises the importance of early relationships in shaping a child’s emotional and social development.

Attachment Theory is used for understanding how children form bonds with their primary caregivers and how these early experiences influence their later relationships and emotional well-being. It has had a significant effect on shaping early years practice, informing how professionals approach childcare and education.

Key ideas include:

• The importance of responsive caregiving
• The concept of a ‘secure base’ for exploration and learning
• The impact of early experiences on later relationships

Practical applications of Bowlby’s work abound in Early Years settings. From implementing key person approaches to designing transition strategies, his ideas shape how we support children’s development. Understanding attachment theory enables practitioners to create nurturing environments that promote secure relationships and emotional resilience.

This comprehensive guide covers:

• Bowlby’s life and influences
• Key concepts of attachment theory
• Practical applications in Early Years settings
• Critiques and ongoing debates
• Contemporary research and future directions

This comprehensive guide explores Bowlby’s life and influences, key concepts of Attachment Theory, its practical applications in early years settings, critiques and ongoing debates, and contemporary research and future directions. Whether you’re a seasoned practitioner or a student entering the field, this article offers valuable insights into one of the most influential theories in child development.

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Introduction and Background to John Bowlby’s Work

John Bowlby revolutionised our understanding of child development. His attachment theory transformed Early Years education and continues to influence childcare practices globally. This article explores Bowlby’s life, theories, and lasting impact on Early Years education and professional practice.

Early Life and Education

John Bowlby was born on 26 February 1907 in London, England. He grew up in an upper-middle-class family with limited parental contact, a common practice at the time. This experience later influenced his work on attachment (Van der Horst, 2011).

Key points in Bowlby’s education:

• Studied psychology at Trinity College, Cambridge
• Trained in psychoanalysis at the British Psychoanalytical Society
• Earned his medical degree from University College Hospital, London

Historical Context

Bowlby developed his theories during the mid-20th century. This period saw significant shifts in psychology and child development theories.

Prevailing ideas of the time:

• Freudian psychoanalysis
• Behaviourism
• Social learning theory

The aftermath of World War II highlighted the impact of separation and loss on children’s mental health. This context deeply influenced Bowlby’s work (Bretherton, 1992).

Key Influences

Bowlby’s thinking was shaped by diverse influences:

• Konrad Lorenz’s work on imprinting in animals
• Mary Ainsworth’s research on mother-infant interactions
• His own clinical work with maladjusted children

These influences led Bowlby to challenge prevailing psychoanalytic views. He emphasised the importance of early relationships in shaping personality and behaviour (Bowlby, 1969).

Main Concepts and Theories

Attachment theory forms the cornerstone of Bowlby’s work. It proposes that children are biologically predisposed to form attachments with caregivers for survival.

Key components of attachment theory:

• Secure base: A caregiver who provides a safe haven for the child
• Internal working models: Mental representations of self and others based on early attachment experiences
• Separation anxiety: Distress experienced by infants when separated from primary caregivers

Bowlby’s ideas challenged the prevailing belief that infants’ attachment to mothers was primarily based on food provision. Instead, he emphasised the importance of responsive, sensitive caregiving (Bowlby, 1988).

His work laid the foundation for understanding the long-term effects of early relationships on social and emotional development. This understanding continues to shape Early Years practice and policy today.

John Bowlby’s Key Concepts and Theories

John Bowlby’s work centres on attachment theory. This theory explains the importance of early relationships for emotional development and mental health. Bowlby’s ideas revolutionised our understanding of child-caregiver bonds and their lifelong impact.

Attachment Theory

Attachment theory forms the cornerstone of Bowlby’s work. It proposes that infants are biologically predisposed to form attachments with caregivers for survival and emotional security.

• Attachment behaviours: Actions that promote proximity to the attachment figure, such as crying, smiling, and following
• Secure base: A caregiver who provides a safe haven for the child to explore from and return to

Bowlby argued that the quality of early attachments significantly influences a child’s emotional and social development. Secure attachments foster confidence and resilience, while insecure attachments may lead to difficulties in relationships and emotional regulation (Bowlby, 1969).

Types of Attachment

Building on Bowlby’s work, Mary Ainsworth identified four main attachment styles through her Strange Situation procedure (Ainsworth et al., 1978):

Ainsworth et al. (1978) identified four main attachment styles through the Strange Situation procedure:

• These children feel confident to explore their environment, knowing they can return to their caregiver for comfort when needed. They show distress when separated but are easily soothed upon reunion.
• Example: In a nursery setting, a securely attached child might happily play with toys, occasionally checking that their caregiver is still present. When the caregiver leaves, they may become upset but are quickly comforted when the caregiver returns.
• These children show intense distress during separation and have difficulty calming down when reunited. They often exhibit clingy and dependent behaviour, yet may resist comfort when offered.
• Example: An anxious-ambivalent child in a playgroup might constantly seek proximity to their caregiver, becoming extremely upset if the caregiver moves away. When the caregiver returns after a brief absence, the child might simultaneously reach out for comfort and push the caregiver away.
• These children show little emotion when the caregiver departs or returns. They tend to avoid or ignore the caregiver, showing little preference between the caregiver and a stranger.
• Example: In a childcare setting, an avoidant child might not acknowledge their caregiver’s arrival or departure. They may not seek comfort from their caregiver when hurt or upset, instead preferring to self-soothe or avoid displaying distress.
• These children show a lack of coherent attachment strategy. They may display a mix of avoidant and ambivalent behaviours, often appearing dazed, confused, or apprehensive in the caregiver’s presence.
• Example: A child with disorganised attachment might freeze or show fear when their caregiver approaches to comfort them after a fall. They might then suddenly seek close contact, only to abruptly pull away or display anger.

These attachment styles reflect the quality of early care and influence future relationships and emotional regulation.

Internal Working Models

Bowlby proposed that early attachment experiences lead to the development of internal working models. These mental representations shape a child’s expectations and behaviours in future relationships.

Key aspects of internal working models:

• Model of self: Beliefs about one’s own lovability and worth
• Model of others: Expectations about the availability and responsiveness of others
• Relationship patterns: Templates for how relationships function

These models tend to be stable over time but can be modified through new experiences and relationships (Bowlby, 1973).

Developmental Phases of Attachment

Bowlby (1969) outlined four phases in the development of attachment:

• Newborns exhibit behaviours like crying, smiling, and grasping that attract adult attention and care. These behaviours are not yet directed at a specific caregiver.
• Example: A newborn in a neonatal unit cries when hungry, prompting any nearby nurse to respond and feed them. The baby does not yet differentiate between caregivers.
• Infants start to respond differently to familiar and unfamiliar adults. They may smile more readily at familiar faces and be soothed more easily by regular caregivers.
• Example: A 4-month-old at home smiles and coos more enthusiastically when their parent enters the room compared to when a family friend visits.
• Children now clearly prefer certain caregivers and may show separation anxiety. They use the attachment figure as a secure base for exploration.
• Example: In a nursery, a 1-year-old becomes upset when their parent leaves, follows their key worker around the room, and returns to the key worker for comfort if they feel unsure.
• Children begin to understand their caregivers’ feelings and motives. They can now negotiate their needs and start to form a reciprocal relationship.
• Example: A 3-year-old in a park wants to continue playing but understands when their caregiver explains it’s time to leave. They might negotiate for “five more minutes” rather than having a tantrum.

These stages highlight the progressive nature of attachment formation. Early Years professionals can use this knowledge to support children’s emotional development and foster secure attachments within their settings (Cassidy & Shaver, 2016).

Relationships Between Concepts

Bowlby’s concepts are interconnected, forming a comprehensive theory of social and emotional development:

• Attachment behaviours lead to the formation of specific attachment relationships
• These relationships shape internal working models
• Internal working models influence future relationships and emotional regulation
• The quality of attachments affects exploration and learning, impacting cognitive development

This interconnected framework explains how early experiences have long-lasting effects on development and mental health.

Bowlby’s theories continue to influence Early Years practice, emphasising the importance of responsive caregiving and secure attachments for healthy child development (Cassidy & Shaver, 2016).

John Bowlby’s Contributions to the Field of Education and Child Development

Impact on educational practices.

Bowlby’s attachment theory has significantly influenced Early Years education practices. His work emphasises the importance of secure attachments for children’s emotional and cognitive development.

Key person approach: Many nurseries and Early Years settings have adopted a key person system based on Bowlby’s theories. This approach assigns a primary caregiver to each child, fostering secure attachments within the educational environment (Elfer et al., 2012).

Example: In a London nursery, each child is assigned a key worker who greets them daily, responds to their needs, and communicates regularly with parents. This practice helps children feel secure and supports their exploration and learning.

Transition practices: Bowlby’s work has informed strategies for managing separations and transitions in Early Years settings. Educators now recognise the importance of gradual transitions and maintaining consistent caregiving relationships.

Example: A nursery in Manchester implements a phased settling-in period for new children. Parents stay with their child for shorter periods each day, gradually withdrawing as the child becomes more comfortable with their key person.

Emotional literacy: Attachment theory has led to an increased focus on emotional literacy in Early Years education. Educators now prioritise helping children understand and express their emotions.

Example: A preschool in Birmingham uses ’emotion cards’ and role-play activities to help children identify and discuss different feelings, supporting their emotional development and self-regulation skills.

Shaping our Understanding of Child Development

Bowlby’s work has deepened our understanding of social and emotional development in early childhood. His theories highlight the crucial role of early relationships in shaping a child’s future social and emotional competence.

Long-term effects of early relationships: Bowlby’s research demonstrated that early attachment experiences influence a child’s social and emotional development throughout their life (Bowlby, 1988).

Example: A longitudinal study in Bristol found that children with secure attachments in infancy showed better social skills and emotional regulation in primary school compared to those with insecure attachments.

Importance of responsive caregiving: Bowlby’s work emphasised the significance of sensitive and responsive caregiving for healthy child development.

Example: A nursery in Glasgow trains staff to recognise and respond promptly to children’s cues, such as crying or seeking proximity, to foster secure attachments and support emotional development.

Understanding separation anxiety: Attachment theory has provided insights into separation anxiety, helping educators and parents manage separations more effectively.

Example: A nursery in Cardiff uses ‘comfort objects’ from home and maintains predictable routines to help children cope with separation from parents, based on their understanding of attachment and separation anxiety.

Relevance to Contemporary Education

Bowlby’s ideas continue to influence contemporary Early Years education and research.

Trauma-informed practice: Attachment theory informs trauma-informed approaches in Early Years settings, helping educators support children who have experienced adverse experiences (Holmes, 2014).

Example: A nursery in Liverpool uses attachment-based interventions to support children in care, providing consistent, nurturing relationships to help them feel safe and develop trust.

Technology and attachment: Recent research explores how Bowlby’s theories apply to children’s relationships with technology and digital media.

Example: A study in Edinburgh examined how video calls can support attachment relationships for children with parents working away from home, finding that regular virtual contact can help maintain secure attachments.

Neuroscience and attachment: Contemporary neuroscience research builds on Bowlby’s work, exploring the neurological basis of attachment relationships (Schore, 2001).

Example: Brain imaging studies at University College London have shown that secure attachment relationships are associated with healthy brain development in areas related to emotional regulation and social cognition.

Bowlby’s contributions continue to shape Early Years practice, informing approaches that prioritise secure, responsive relationships to support children’s holistic development.

Criticisms and Limitations of John Bowlby’s Theories and Concepts

John Bowlby’s attachment theory has significantly influenced child development understanding. However, it has faced various criticisms and limitations. Examining these critiques provides a more comprehensive view of attachment theory and its application in Early Years settings.

Criticisms of Research Methods

• Limited sample diversity: Bowlby’s initial research focused primarily on white, middle-class families in Western cultures. This narrow sample limits the generalisability of his findings to diverse populations (LeVine, 2014).

Example: A study in rural Kenya found that multiple caregivers, rather than a single primary attachment figure, were common and adaptive in that context, challenging the universality of Bowlby’s model (Keller, 2013).

• Overreliance on maternal deprivation studies: Bowlby’s early work heavily emphasised maternal deprivation, potentially overlooking the role of other caregivers and social interactions in child development (Rutter, 1972).

Example: Research on children in kibbutzim showed that despite limited contact with biological parents, many children developed secure attachments to multiple caregivers, suggesting a more flexible attachment process than Bowlby initially proposed (Aviezer et al., 1994).

Challenges to Key Concepts

• Inflexibility of attachment patterns: Critics argue that Bowlby’s theory presents attachment patterns as overly fixed, underestimating the potential for change throughout life (Thompson, 2000).

Example: A longitudinal study found that significant life events, such as divorce or trauma, could alter attachment styles in adulthood, indicating more flexibility than Bowlby’s theory suggests (Waters et al., 2000).

• Overemphasis on mother-child bond: Bowlby’s focus on the mother as the primary attachment figure has been criticised for undervaluing the role of fathers and other caregivers (Lamb, 2002).

Example: Research on father-child relationships has shown that children can form secure attachments with fathers, which contribute uniquely to their development (Grossmann et al., 2002).

Contextual and Cultural Limitations

• Cultural bias: Bowlby’s theory has been criticised for reflecting Western, individualistic values and not fully accounting for diverse cultural child-rearing practices (Rothbaum et al., 2000).

Example: In many collectivist cultures, such as those found in parts of Africa and Asia, children are often cared for by extended family members or community networks, challenging the emphasis on a single primary caregiver (Keller, 2013).

• Socioeconomic factors: Critics argue that Bowlby’s theory does not adequately address how socioeconomic factors influence attachment relationships and child development (Burman, 2008).

Example: Research has shown that economic stress can affect parenting behaviours and, consequently, attachment formation, a factor not fully explored in Bowlby’s original work (Conger et al., 2002).

Addressing Criticisms in Practice

Despite these criticisms, Bowlby’s attachment theory remains valuable in Early Years practice. Educators can address these limitations by:

• Adopting a culturally responsive approach: Recognise and respect diverse attachment behaviours and caregiving practices.

Example: An Early Years setting in Birmingham adapts its key person approach to accommodate families from collectivist cultures, involving extended family members in the child’s care and education.

• Considering multiple attachment figures: Acknowledge the importance of various caregivers in a child’s life, including fathers, grandparents, and Early Years professionals.

Example: A nursery in Glasgow encourages all staff to form warm, responsive relationships with children, recognising that children can benefit from multiple secure attachments.

• Remaining flexible: Understand that attachment patterns can change and that children may display different attachment behaviours in different contexts.

Example: An Early Years practitioner in Manchester works closely with parents during transitions, recognising that a child’s attachment behaviours may differ between home and nursery settings.

By considering these critiques and adapting practice accordingly, Early Years professionals can use Bowlby’s insights while addressing the theory’s limitations, ensuring a more comprehensive approach to supporting children’s social and emotional development.

Practical Applications of John Bowlby’s Work

Translating Bowlby’s attachment theory into practical strategies enhances Early Years practice. This section explores applications in curriculum planning, classroom management, and family engagement. Implementing these ideas promotes children’s social-emotional development and overall well-being.

Application in Curriculum and Lesson Planning

• Creating secure learning environments: Design spaces that allow children to explore while maintaining proximity to caregivers.

Example: A nursery in Bristol creates cosy reading nooks within sight of the main activity area, allowing children to engage independently while feeling secure.

• Incorporating attachment-based activities: Plan activities that strengthen child-caregiver relationships and promote emotional literacy.

Example: A preschool in Manchester implements daily ‘circle time’ where children share feelings and experiences, fostering emotional awareness and secure relationships with peers and teachers.

• Supporting transitions: Design curriculum elements that help children manage separations and transitions.

Example: An Early Years setting in Glasgow uses photo books of children’s families and key workers to provide comfort during transitions and maintain a sense of connection.

Strategies for Classroom Management and Interaction

• Responsive caregiving: Train staff to recognise and respond sensitively to children’s emotional needs.

Example: A nursery in Birmingham implements a ‘key person’ system, where each child has a dedicated caregiver who responds consistently to their needs, fostering secure attachments.

• Emotional coaching: Use Bowlby’s insights to guide children in understanding and managing their emotions.

Example: An Early Years practitioner in Leeds helps a child who is struggling with sharing by acknowledging their feelings, “I see you’re feeling frustrated. Let’s think about how we can take turns.”

• Creating predictable routines: Establish consistent daily routines to provide a sense of security and predictability.

Example: A nursery in Cardiff uses visual timetables to help children understand the day’s structure, reducing anxiety and promoting a sense of security.

Engaging Families and Communities

• Educating parents on attachment: Provide workshops and resources to help parents understand the importance of secure attachments.

Example: A Children’s Centre in Liverpool offers monthly ‘Attachment Cafes’ where parents learn about attachment theory and discuss practical strategies for building secure relationships with their children.

• Promoting sensitive parenting: Offer guidance on responsive caregiving practices to parents and carers.

Example: An Early Years setting in Edinburgh provides ‘stay and play’ sessions where staff model sensitive interactions with children, helping parents develop their own responsive caregiving skills.

• Supporting home-setting transitions: Work with families to create consistent caregiving approaches between home and the Early Years setting.

Example: A nursery in Southampton uses ‘communication books’ to share information about children’s experiences and emotions between home and nursery, promoting consistency in caregiving approaches.

Overcoming Challenges and Barriers to Implementation

• Addressing time constraints: Integrate attachment-based practices into existing routines and activities.

Example: A busy nursery in London incorporates brief, one-on-one interactions between key workers and children during routine activities like nappy changes or mealtimes, maximising opportunities for secure attachment formation.

• Managing large group sizes: Implement small group activities and rotations to ensure individual attention.

Example: A preschool in Sheffield divides children into small groups for part of each day, allowing key workers to provide more individualised care and attention.

• Navigating cultural differences: Adapt attachment-based practices to respect diverse cultural perspectives on child-rearing.

Example: An Early Years setting in Bradford with a high proportion of South Asian families adapts its settling-in procedures to accommodate extended family involvement, respecting cultural norms while still promoting secure attachments.

• Addressing resource limitations: Creatively use available resources to support attachment-based practices.

Example: A nursery in Devon with limited funds creates ‘comfort kits’ using donated items, providing each child with a personalised set of objects that promote a sense of security and connection to home.

By creatively applying Bowlby’s ideas, Early Years professionals can enhance their practice, supporting children’s emotional well-being and development. These strategies, grounded in attachment theory, provide a framework for creating nurturing environments that promote secure relationships and positive developmental outcomes (Geddes, 2006).

Comparing John Bowlby’s Ideas with Other Theorists

Understanding Bowlby’s attachment theory in relation to other child development theories provides a comprehensive view of early childhood. This section compares Bowlby’s work with that of Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson, and Lev Vygotsky. Examining these comparisons enhances our understanding and informs Early Years practice.

Comparison with Sigmund Freud

Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, significantly influenced Bowlby’s early thinking. Both theorists emphasised the importance of early childhood experiences in shaping later development.

• Emphasis on early experiences: Both Freud and Bowlby believed early childhood experiences profoundly impact later life.

Example: A child with secure attachments in infancy is more likely to form healthy relationships in adulthood, echoing Freud’s emphasis on early experiences shaping adult personality.

• Role of the unconscious: Freud and Bowlby acknowledged the influence of unconscious processes on behaviour and relationships.

Example: A child’s internal working models, as described by Bowlby, operate largely unconsciously, similar to Freud’s concept of the unconscious mind influencing behaviour.

• Divergence on drive theory: Bowlby rejected Freud’s drive theory, proposing attachment as a primary need rather than a secondary drive.

Example: While Freud might interpret an infant’s crying as driven by hunger (a physiological drive), Bowlby would view it as an attachment behaviour designed to maintain proximity to caregivers.

Comparison with Erik Erikson

Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory shares some commonalities with Bowlby’s work, particularly in its emphasis on social relationships and emotional development.

• Importance of trust: Both theorists emphasised the importance of developing trust in early relationships.

Example: Erikson’s first stage, ‘Trust vs Mistrust’, aligns with Bowlby’s concept of secure attachment, both highlighting the importance of responsive caregiving in infancy.

• Lifelong development: Erikson and Bowlby both viewed development as a lifelong process, although they focused on different aspects.

Example: While Bowlby focused on how early attachments influence later relationships, Erikson outlined specific psychosocial stages throughout the lifespan.

• Cultural considerations: Erikson placed more emphasis on cultural influences on development than Bowlby initially did.

Example: Erikson’s theory might better account for variations in child-rearing practices across cultures, while Bowlby’s theory has been criticised for its Western bias.

Read our in-depth article on Erik Erikson here.

Comparison with Lev Vygotsky

Lev Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory offers a different perspective on child development, focusing on the role of social interaction and cultural context.

• Social interaction: Both Vygotsky and Bowlby emphasised the importance of social relationships in development.

Example: While Bowlby focused on emotional bonds, Vygotsky emphasised how social interactions facilitate cognitive development, such as language acquisition.

• Cultural context: Vygotsky placed greater emphasis on the role of culture in shaping development than Bowlby initially did.

Example: Vygotsky’s theory might better explain how attachment behaviours vary across cultures, addressing a limitation in Bowlby’s original work.

• Cognitive development: Vygotsky focused more on cognitive development, while Bowlby emphasised emotional and social development.

Example: In an Early Years setting, Vygotsky’s theory might inform scaffolding activities to support cognitive skills, while Bowlby’s theory would guide practices to support emotional security.

Read our in-depth article on Lev Vygotsky here.

Synthesis and Implications for Practice

Understanding these comparisons enriches Early Years practice by providing a multifaceted view of child development.

• Holistic approach: Integrating insights from multiple theorists promotes a more comprehensive approach to supporting children’s development.

Example: An Early Years setting in Leeds combines Bowlby’s emphasis on secure attachments with Vygotsky’s focus on scaffolded learning, creating an emotionally secure environment that also supports cognitive development.

• Flexible application: Recognising the strengths and limitations of different theories allows for more flexible and adaptive practice.

Example: A nursery in Cardiff uses Bowlby’s insights to inform their key person approach, while drawing on Erikson’s stages to understand and support children’s developing autonomy and initiative.

Limitations and Challenges of Comparing Theorists

Comparing theorists requires careful consideration of their historical and cultural contexts. Oversimplification or decontextualisation of theories can lead to misunderstandings or misapplications.

• Historical context: Each theorist’s work reflects the time and place in which it was developed.

Example: Bowlby’s focus on maternal deprivation was influenced by post-war concerns about children separated from their mothers, a context that may not fully apply to contemporary diverse family structures.

• Disciplinary differences: Theories from different disciplines may have different underlying assumptions and methodologies.

Example: While Bowlby’s theory is grounded in ethology and psychoanalysis, Vygotsky’s work stems from a sociocultural perspective, making direct comparisons challenging.

Early Years professionals benefit from approaching these comparisons critically, recognising that integrating insights from multiple theories can enhance practice while acknowledging the complexity of child development (Smith et al., 2015).

John Bowlby’s Legacy and Ongoing Influence

John Bowlby’s attachment theory has profoundly impacted child development understanding and Early Years practice. His work continues to influence research, policy, and professional practice. Understanding Bowlby’s legacy is crucial for Early Years professionals and students to contextualise current practices and future directions in the field.

Impact on Contemporary Research

Bowlby’s ideas have inspired extensive research in child development, attachment, and mental health.

• Neuroscience and attachment: Recent neuroimaging studies have explored the neurobiological basis of attachment relationships.

Example: Research at University College London has shown that secure attachment is associated with enhanced development of brain regions involved in emotional regulation and social cognition (Schore, 2001).

• Intergenerational transmission of attachment: Studies have investigated how attachment patterns are passed from one generation to the next.

Example: A longitudinal study in Minnesota found that mothers’ attachment classifications predicted their infants’ attachment patterns, highlighting the intergenerational nature of attachment (Sroufe et al., 2005).

• Attachment and technology: Contemporary research examines how digital media affects attachment relationships.

Example: A study at the University of Sussex explored how video calling technologies support attachment relationships in long-distance families, finding that regular virtual contact can help maintain secure attachments (Yarosh & Abowd, 2013).

Influence on Educational Policy and Curriculum

Bowlby’s work has significantly influenced Early Years policy and curriculum development.

• Key person approach: Many national Early Years frameworks now emphasise the importance of a key person system, based on attachment theory.

Example: The English Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) framework mandates a key person approach, ensuring each child has a dedicated practitioner to foster secure attachments (Department for Education, 2017).

• Transition policies: Attachment theory has informed policies on managing transitions in Early Years settings.

Example: The Scottish Early Learning and Childcare (ELC) framework includes guidance on supporting children’s emotional well-being during transitions, drawing on attachment principles (Scottish Government, 2020).

• Emotional well-being focus: Many curricula now emphasise emotional development and well-being, influenced by Bowlby’s work.

Example: The Welsh Foundation Phase Framework includes ‘Personal and Social Development, Well-being and Cultural Diversity’ as a core area of learning, reflecting the influence of attachment theory (Welsh Government, 2015).

Ongoing Relevance for Professional Practice

Bowlby’s ideas continue to guide Early Years professional practice.

• Responsive caregiving: Practitioners use attachment principles to inform their interactions with children.

Example: A nursery in Bristol trains staff in responsive caregiving techniques, such as mirroring children’s emotions and providing comfort during distress, based on attachment theory principles.

• Parental engagement: Attachment theory informs strategies for involving parents in their children’s early education.

Example: A Children’s Centre in Manchester offers ‘Attachment-Based Play’ sessions, where parents learn to strengthen their bond with their children through responsive play activities.

• Trauma-informed practice: Bowlby’s work underpins approaches to supporting children who have experienced adverse experiences.

Example: A nursery in Glasgow uses attachment-based interventions to support children in care, providing consistent, nurturing relationships to help them feel safe and develop trust.

Current Developments and Future Directions

While Bowlby’s legacy is significant, ongoing research continues to refine and extend his ideas.

• Cultural variations in attachment: Current research explores how attachment manifests across different cultures.

Example: A study in Japan found that the traditional ‘Strange Situation’ procedure may not accurately assess attachment in cultures where children are rarely left with strangers, leading to the development of culturally sensitive assessment tools (Behrens et al., 2007).

• Multiple attachment figures: Contemporary research examines the role of multiple caregivers in children’s attachment networks.

Example: Studies on same-sex parent families have shown that children can form secure attachments with both parents, challenging the traditional focus on a single primary attachment figure (Farr, 2017).

• Attachment in digital contexts: Emerging research investigates how digital technologies impact attachment relationships.

Example: Researchers at the University of Oxford are exploring how social media use affects adolescents’ attachment relationships and emotional well-being, pointing to both potential benefits and risks (Orben et al., 2019).

Bowlby’s legacy continues to evolve, inspiring new research and practice. Early Years professionals are encouraged to engage critically with these developments, integrating new insights into their practice while maintaining a focus on fostering secure, responsive relationships with children in their care.

John Bowlby’s attachment theory has profoundly influenced our understanding of child development and Early Years education. His work emphasised the crucial role of early relationships in shaping children’s social, emotional, and cognitive development. Bowlby’s concepts of secure attachment, internal working models, and the importance of responsive caregiving continue to resonate in contemporary Early Years practice.

• Key contributions: Attachment theory, internal working models, and developmental phases of attachment
• Significant impact: Shaped understanding of early relationships’ influence on lifelong development
• Enduring relevance: Continues to inform research, policy, and practice in Early Years education

Bowlby’s ideas have significant implications for Early Years practice. They underscore the importance of creating nurturing environments that support secure attachments and emotional well-being.

• Key person approach: Implementing a dedicated caregiver system to foster secure attachments
• Responsive caregiving: Training staff to recognise and sensitively respond to children’s emotional needs
• Family engagement: Involving parents and caregivers in children’s early education to support consistent attachment relationships

Example: A nursery in Leeds uses Bowlby’s insights to create a ‘settling-in’ programme that gradually introduces children to the setting while maintaining close contact with parents, supporting secure attachments during transitions.

While Bowlby’s work provides valuable insights, critical engagement with his ideas is essential. Early Years professionals are encouraged to consider the cultural and contextual limitations of attachment theory and adapt practices accordingly.

• Cultural sensitivity: Recognising diverse attachment behaviours across cultures
• Multiple attachment figures: Acknowledging the role of various caregivers in children’s lives
• Ongoing research: Staying informed about current developments in attachment theory and related fields

Example: An Early Years setting in Birmingham adapts its attachment-based practices to accommodate families from collectivist cultures, recognising that children may have multiple primary caregivers.

Early Years professionals and students are encouraged to apply Bowlby’s ideas creatively in their practice, while remaining open to new insights and adaptations.

• Reflective practice: Regularly evaluating and refining attachment-based approaches
• Collaborative learning: Sharing experiences and insights with colleagues and the wider Early Years community
• Ongoing professional development: Engaging with current research and debates in child development

Example: A group of Early Years practitioners in Manchester form a study group to explore how recent neuroscience findings on attachment can inform their daily practice with young children.

Bowlby’s attachment theory continues to provide a valuable framework for understanding and supporting children’s development. By engaging critically and creatively with his ideas, Early Years professionals can enhance their practice and contribute to the ongoing evolution of child development theory and practice.

Frequently Asked Questions

How can i support attachment in a busy nursery setting.

Supporting attachment in a busy nursery requires intentional strategies:

• Implement a key person approach, assigning a primary caregiver to each child
• Create opportunities for one-on-one interactions during routine activities
• Use transitions and daily rituals to strengthen connections
• Maintain consistent staff to support ongoing relationships

Example: A nursery in Manchester uses ‘settling in’ boxes containing photos and comfort items from home to help children feel secure during transitions.

Can Children Form Multiple Attachments?

Yes, children can form multiple attachments:

• Bowlby initially focused on a primary attachment figure, often the mother
• Contemporary research shows children can form secure attachments with multiple caregivers
• These attachments can include fathers, grandparents, and childcare professionals
• Multiple attachments support children’s social and emotional development

A study by Ahnert et al. (2006) found that children in childcare settings often form secure attachments with their caregivers, complementing parental attachments.

How Does Attachment Theory Apply to Children with Special Educational Needs and Disabilities (SEND)?

Attachment theory is relevant for children with SEND, but may require adaptations:

• Children with SEND may express attachment needs differently
• Caregivers need to be attuned to individual communication styles
• Consistent, responsive caregiving remains crucial
• Collaboration between parents and professionals supports attachment

Research by Howe (2006) suggests that while attachment patterns may manifest differently in children with SEND, the underlying principles of attachment theory still apply.

What Role Does Technology Play in Attachment Relationships?

Technology’s impact on attachment is an emerging area of research:

• Video calls can support long-distance attachment relationships
• Digital media can provide opportunities for joint attention between caregivers and children
• Excessive screen time may interfere with face-to-face interactions crucial for attachment
• Balanced and intentional use of technology is key

A study by McClure et al. (2015) found that video chat interactions can support toddlers’ language development and social connections with distant family members.

How Can I Address Cultural Differences in Attachment Behaviours?

Addressing cultural differences in attachment requires cultural sensitivity:

• Recognise that attachment behaviours may vary across cultures
• Avoid assuming Western norms of attachment are universal
• Learn about diverse caregiving practices and their cultural significance
• Adapt attachment-based practices to respect cultural values

Research by Keller (2013) highlights the importance of considering cultural context when interpreting attachment behaviours, emphasising that secure attachment can manifest differently across cultures.

Can Insecure Attachment Patterns Be Changed?

While early attachment patterns are influential, they can be modified:

• Therapeutic interventions can support the development of secure attachments
• Consistent, responsive caregiving can help children develop more secure attachment patterns over time
• Early Years settings can provide a secure base for children with insecure attachments
• Parental support and education can promote more secure attachment relationships

A meta-analysis by Bakermans-Kranenburg et al. (2003) found that interventions focusing on sensitive parenting can effectively enhance attachment security.

How Does Attachment Theory Relate to School Readiness?

Attachment theory has implications for school readiness:

• Secure attachments promote emotional regulation, crucial for classroom learning
• Children with secure attachments often display greater social competence and peer relationships
• Secure attachments support exploration and learning behaviours
• Transition practices based on attachment theory can ease the move to formal schooling

Research by Commodari (2013) found that secure attachment was positively associated with children’s school readiness and adaptation to the school environment.

• Ahnert, L., Pinquart, M., & Lamb, M. E. (2006). Security of children’s relationships with nonparental care providers: A meta-analysis. Child Development, 77(3), 664-679.
• Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Lawrence Erlbaum.
• Aviezer, O., Van Ijzendoorn, M. H., Sagi, A., & Schuengel, C. (1994). “Children of the dream” revisited: 70 years of collective early child care in Israeli kibbutzim. Psychological Bulletin, 116(1), 99-116.
• Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Juffer, F. (2003). Less is more: Meta-analyses of sensitivity and attachment interventions in early childhood. Psychological Bulletin, 129(2), 195-215.
• Behrens, K. Y., Hesse, E., & Main, M. (2007). Mothers’ attachment status as determined by the Adult Attachment Interview predicts their 6-year-olds’ reunion responses: A study conducted in Japan. Developmental Psychology, 43(6), 1553-1567.
• Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment. Basic Books.
• Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss: Vol. 2. Separation: Anxiety and anger. Basic Books.
• Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base: Parent-child attachment and healthy human development. Basic Books.
• Bretherton, I. (1992). The origins of attachment theory: John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth. Developmental Psychology, 28(5), 759-775.
• Burman, E. (2008). Deconstructing developmental psychology (2nd ed.). Routledge.
• Cassidy, J., & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.). (2016). Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (3rd ed.). Guilford Press.
• Commodari, E. (2013). Preschool teacher attachment, school readiness and risk of learning difficulties. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 28(1), 123-133.
• Conger, R. D., Wallace, L. E., Sun, Y., Simons, R. L., McLoyd, V. C., & Brody, G. H. (2002). Economic pressure in African American families: A replication and extension of the family stress model. Developmental Psychology, 38(2), 179-193.
• Department for Education. (2017). Statutory framework for the early years foundation stage. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/early-years-foundation-stage-framework–2
• Elfer, P., Goldschmied, E., & Selleck, D. (2012). Key persons in the early years: Building relationships for quality provision in early years settings and primary schools. Routledge.
• Farr, R. H. (2017). Does parental sexual orientation matter? A longitudinal follow-up of adoptive families with school-age children. Developmental Psychology, 53(2), 252-264.
• Geddes, H. (2006). Attachment in the classroom: The links between children’s early experience, emotional well-being and performance in school. Worth Publishing.
• Grossmann, K., Grossmann, K. E., Fremmer‐Bombik, E., Kindler, H., Scheuerer‐Englisch, H., & Zimmermann, P. (2002). The uniqueness of the child–father attachment relationship: Fathers’ sensitive and challenging play as a pivotal variable in a 16‐year longitudinal study. Social Development, 11(3), 301-337.
• Holmes, J. (2014). John Bowlby and attachment theory. Routledge.
• Howe, D. (2006). Disabled children, parent–child interaction and attachment. Child & Family Social Work, 11(2), 95-106.
• Keller, H. (2013). Attachment and culture. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44(2), 175-194.
• Lamb, M. E. (2002). Infant-father attachments and their impact on child development. In C. S. Tamis-LeMonda & N. Cabrera (Eds.), Handbook of father involvement: Multidisciplinary perspectives (pp. 93-117). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• LeVine, R. A. (2014). Attachment theory as cultural ideology. In H. Otto & H. Keller (Eds.), Different faces of attachment: Cultural variations on a universal human need (pp. 50-65). Cambridge University Press.
• McClure, E. R., Chentsova-Dutton, Y. E., Barr, R. F., Holochwost, S. J., & Parrott, W. G. (2015). “Facetime doesn’t count”: Video chat as an exception to media restrictions for infants and toddlers. International Journal of Child-Computer Interaction, 6, 1-6.
• Orben, A., Dienlin, T., & Przybylski, A. K. (2019). Social media’s enduring effect on adolescent life satisfaction. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(21), 10226-10228.
• Rothbaum, F., Weisz, J., Pott, M., Miyake, K., & Morelli, G. (2000). Attachment and culture: Security in the United States and Japan. American Psychologist, 55(10), 1093-1104.
• Rutter, M. (1972). Maternal deprivation reassessed. Penguin.
• Schore, A. N. (2001). Effects of a secure attachment relationship on right brain development, affect regulation, and infant mental health. Infant Mental Health Journal, 22(1‐2), 7-66.
• Scottish Government. (2020). Realising the ambition: Being me. https://education.gov.scot/improvement/learning-resources/realising-the-ambition/
• Smith, P. K., Cowie, H., & Blades, M. (2015). Understanding children’s development (6th ed.). Wiley.
• Sroufe, L. A., Egeland, B., Carlson, E. A., & Collins, W. A. (2005). The development of the person: The Minnesota study of risk and adaptation from birth to adulthood. Guilford Press.
• Thompson, R. A. (2000). The legacy of early attachments. Child Development, 71(1), 145-152.
• Van der Horst, F. C. (2011). John Bowlby – From psychoanalysis to ethology: Unravelling the roots of attachment theory. Wiley-Blackwell.
• Waters, E., Merrick, S., Treboux, D., Crowell, J., & Albersheim, L. (2000). Attachment security in infancy and early adulthood: A twenty-year longitudinal study. Child Development, 71(3), 684-689.
• Welsh Government. (2015). Foundation Phase framework. https://gov.wales/foundation-phase-framework
• Yarosh, S., & Abowd, G. D. (2013). Mediated parent-child contact in work-separated families. Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 1351-1360.

Further Reading and Research

Recommended articles.

• Bergin, C., & Bergin, D. (2009). Attachment in the classroom. Educational Psychology Review, 21(2), 141-170. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-009-9104-0
• Verschueren, K., & Koomen, H. M. (2012). Teacher–child relationships from an attachment perspective. Attachment & Human Development, 14(3), 205-211. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2012.672260
• Commodari, E. (2013). Preschool teacher attachment, school readiness and risk of learning difficulties. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 28(1), 123-133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2012.03.004
• Riley, P. (2011). Attachment theory and the teacher-student relationship: A practical guide for teachers, teacher educators and school leaders. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203845783
• Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1979). Infant–mother attachment. American Psychologist, 34(10), 932-937. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.34.10.932

Recommended Books

• This book provides practical insights for educators on how attachment theory can be applied in educational settings.
• Offers practical strategies for identifying and supporting children with attachment difficulties in early years settings.
• Provides practical strategies for supporting children with attachment difficulties in educational settings.
• Outlines an evidence-based intervention for enhancing attachment relationships between parents and young children.
• Explores how secure attachment relationships shape brain development and influence children’s emotional well-being.

Recommended Websites

• Offers resources, training, and research on attachment-aware and trauma-informed practices in education.
• Provides information and resources on the Circle of Security approach to supporting secure attachment relationships.
• Offers research, resources, and training on various aspects of early childhood development, including attachment.
• Provides resources, training, and publications on early years education, including materials on supporting children’s emotional well-being and relationships.
• Offers information, training, and resources on attachment theory and its applications in various contexts, including early years settings.

Kathy Brodie

Kathy Brodie is an Early Years Professional, Trainer and Author of multiple books on Early Years Education and Child Development. She is the founder of Early Years TV and the Early Years Summit.

To cite this article use:

Early Years TV John Bowlby’s Attachment Theory and Developmental Phases . Available at: https://www.earlyyears.tv/john-bowlbys-attachment-theory-and-developmental-phases (Accessed: 23 December 2024).

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BOWLBY’S MONOTROPIC THEORY

SPECIFICATION: Explanations of Bowlby’s monotropic theory. The concepts of a critical period and an internal working model.

Topic : BOWLBY’S MONOTROPIC THEORY

Understand Bowlby’s theory of attachment

Key Concepts:

Infancy, toddlerhood, early childhood, ethological theory, imprinting, evolution, genetics, individual differences, naturalistic observation, intervention, temperament, correlation vs. causation, nature vs. nurture

BOWLBY’S MONOTROPIC THEORY OF ATTACHMENT

Bowlby’s theory is based on seven key concepts:.

The critical period when attachment should occur

Innate programming to attach (evolutionary adaptation)

Continuity hypothesis

Internal working model

Social releases

¨‘C-I-C-I-M-P-S’

INTRODUCTION

Attachment theory is the joint work of John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth (Ainsworth & Bowlby, 1991). Drawing on concepts from ethology, evolution, cybernetics, information processing, developmental psychology, and psychoanalysis, John Bowlby formulated the basic principles of his attachment theory. He exalted the primary caregiver status by revolutionising how the Western world viewed the role of bonding and attachment. Bowlby’s theories were based on juvenile patients in his clinical practice, where he observed the effects of disrupted bonds through separation, deprivation, and bereavement.

HUMAN BABIES ARE BORN PREMATURE

Bowlby thought human babies had a biological need to attach to a primary caregiver because they were so completely useless and helpless at birth. Humans, like kangaroos, have been naturally selected to deliver babies prematurely. The human brain is not a complete organ at birth. It is in essence premature or at least, not fully developed. The brain needs at least twelve years for broad development and twenty to twenty-five years for full development. Indeed, by one assessment, a human foetus would have to undergo a gestation period of eighteen to twenty-one months instead of the usual nine to be born at a neurological and cognitive development stage comparable to that of a newborn chimpanzee. The traditional explanation for the nine-month gestation period and helpless newborn is that natural selection favoured childbirth at an earlier stage of foetal development to accommodate a brain size that could fit through the narrower hips that resulted from bipedalism.

There are many theories given to explain the early birth of human babies but hip size and ease of birth remain. one of the favourites.

Bowlby believed that as humans are born completely helpless at birth, they would surely die without the care and love of a primary caregiver. Bowlby believed that attachment behaviours have been naturally selected. Therefore, mothers must have been naturally selected to attach to and love their offspring; if they were not programmed to bond immediately, many newborns would not survive or be severely neglected. At least those uncaring parenting genes don’t get passed on though. .

Bowlby proposed infants had an innate tendency to form attachments with one caregiver, usually the mother, who was the most sensitive to their needs. Bowlby saw this attachment as unique, the first to develop, and the strongest of all as it formed a model template of future relationships the child can expect from others, also known as the continuity hypothesis.

This internal working model created a consistency between early emotional experiences from the primary attachment figure and later relationships as it teaches a child what relationships are like and how people behave within them. This also helped children form an opinion of themselves and shaped their attachment types. This experience is then used to predict future relationships in both intimate partners and peer relations.

Bowlby called his theory ‘monotropic as he believed that babies needed to form a quality relationship with one person. This attachment must be formed in the ‘critical period’ before the child reaches the age of 2-3 years, providing the baby with a template (‘internal working model’) for all future relationships.

The core elements of  Bowlby’s theory are  that early parental care forms the prototype for future relationships through the  internal working model.  Infants become attached to individuals, who are sensitive and responsive in social interactions with them, and who remain consistent caregivers during a  critical period  in their development (from birth to two and a half years of age). 

CRITICAL PERIODS

¨Bowlby borrowed the concept of the critical period from the work of Lorenz, who pointed to the rapid formation of attachments in animals.

¨Bowlby believed that attachment between a caregiver and an infant should not be disrupted before the age of 2 ½ and that if this age hadn’t formed attachments, they would have difficulty forming them. Key Study: Bowlby's Monotropic Attachment Theory 1969

Evolutionary theorists propose a sensitive period where the attachment can form, with Bowlby proposing this occurs from the 3-4 month mark and with attachment more difficult in the following months.

INNATE PROGRAMMING

¨Bowlby believed that attachment is innate or inborn.

Attachment behaviours are then biologically programmed into a baby from birth to help them survive, so infants have an innate drive to survive.

THE CONTINUITY HYPOTHESIS

The continuity hypothesis proposes a link between early attachment and later relationships with poorly attached children, who have more difficulty in childhood and adulthood. In contrast, securely attached children form more stable relationships.

Secondary attachment figures may also aid social development and be a safety net for healthy psychological well-being. Bowlby called this his monotropic theory as he believed babies would have one special attachment figure for whom they form a special bond. In most cases, this may be the mother, but this depended on who was most sensitive to the child’s needs rather than who spent the most time with them.

This sees a continuity between early attachment types reflected in later relationships in both childhood and adulthood.

THE INTERNAL WORKING MODEL

Bowlby’s Internal Working Model is similar to the concept of a Schema or “template”.

The relationship you have with your key caregiver forms a mental representation or a model for what relationships are like. It can therefore have a powerful effect on the nature of a child’s future relationship and their ability to be a parent.

¨Secure child= Adults who are socially and emotionally competent in relationships so are more likely to have successful relationships

The relationship with the primary caregiver would ultimately act as a template and develop the infant’s expectations of future relationships with others. Bowlby referred to this as the internal working model. This also provided the child with insight into their caregiver’s behaviour and some level of influence so a relationship could form between the two.

¨The idea that infants have one special bond normally with the biological mother and that this relationship is special and more important than any other.

¨He believed a female substitute would do if it weren’t the biological mother.

Seeking closeness to the caregiver for evolutionary ‘survival’ reasons

¨Biological pre-programmed

Bowlby suggested that this innate drive to form attachments ensures they remain near a caregiver that will protect and feed them, increasing their chances of survival and reproducing.

Bowlby believed the primary caregiver provided a safe base for them to explore the world and return to when threatened. An attachment was also seen to aid cognitive development and provide an opportunity to learn through imitation.

SOCIAL RELEASERS

Social releasers are specific behaviours infants exhibit that naturally elicit caregiving responses from adults. These instinctual behaviours form and strengthen the attachment bond between the infant and the caregiver. Here's a list of common social releasers and the responses they typically elicit:

Crying : Signals distress or discomfort, prompting the caregiver to soothe, comfort, or address the infant's needs.

Smiling : Encourages interaction and bonding; often elicits smiles and affectionate responses from the caregiver.

Gazing or Looking : Attracts the caregiver's attention and engages them in mutual eye contact, fostering connection and emotional synchrony.

Coos and Babbling : Invites verbal interaction and communication from the caregiver, strengthening the social bond.

Reaching Out : Indicates a desire for closeness or to be held, prompting the caregiver to pick up, hold, or cuddle the infant.

Mimicry : When infants mimic facial expressions or gestures, it encourages continued social interaction and teaches the infant about social cues.

Laughing : Like smiling, laughing is a positive feedback mechanism that encourages caregivers to engage in playful interactions.

Clutching or Grasping : An instinctive reaction to being held, which can reassure the caregiver of the infant's engagement and need for security.

These social releasers are crucial in the early stages of life, as they play a key role in the development of attachment by ensuring that caregivers provide the necessary care and emotional support. They are part of an evolutionary mechanism designed to enhance infant survival by maintaining proximity to the caregiver.

There is support for many of the key concepts in Bowlby’s theory, for example,

HARLOW MONKEYS: Harlow’s findings support the concept of the INTERNAL WORKING MODEL having continuity because the monkey instinctively sought to be close to one specific mother monkey. ¨It also supports the idea of the internal working model - monkeys didn’t form adequate attachments and relationships as infant monkeys, so they went on to become bad mothers, suggesting that the monkeys didn’t know how to look after infants

SCROUFE ( MINNESOTA LONGITUDINAL STUDY) began in 1975 and is currently in its 36th year.

The Minnesota Longitudinal Study of Risk and Adaptation investigated how certain interpersonal experiences encountered yearly in life (at age 1) systematically predict how people think, feel, and behave in their adult romantic relationships approximately 20 years later.

Procedures:  Longitudinal study from 1975 – preset

Sroufe followed a cohort of children from the age of one who had been assessed in the strange situation. Children are assessed by a range of people: parents, peers, teachers, and psychologists about how they relate to other people.

Findings : It was found that securely attached infants were more popular as they got older, had the highest social competence and showed the most empathy towards others. This directly supports Bowlby's theory that the bond formed with a primary caregiver is pivotal for healthy development across the lifespan. The results show that early secure attachments predict positive outcomes, affirming the continuity of emotional and social development from early childhood into adulthood.

HAZAN AND SHAVER (LOVE QUIZ) Hazan and Shaver (1987) discovered that infants who had been securely attached when children went on to have happy, lasting and trusting relationships as adults, yet insecurely attached infants had less successful adult relationships. This evidence supports the internal working model.

BAILY (2007) Evidence that the internal working model is transmitted through family generations. Their study involved 99 mothers with one-year-old babies, where mothers who reported having poor attachments with their parents were more likely to be observed as having poor attachments with their children. This finding underscores the theory that attachment patterns can be inherited, as the internal working model developed in childhood influences how individuals interact with their children, demonstrating a cyclical nature of attachment behaviours across generations.

MCCARTHY: McCarthy's study provides insight into the long-term impact of early attachment types on adult relationships. In her research, McCarthy (1999) explored the connection between attachment styles in early childhood and the quality of adult romantic relationships. She found that individuals classified as securely attached in infancy tended to have healthier, more stable romantic relationships in adulthood. Conversely, those with insecure attachments in childhood—either avoidant or ambivalent—were more likely to experience difficulties in forming and maintaining intimate relationships.

SIMPSON: Jeffry Simpson's longitudinal study is a significant piece of research in developmental psychology, particularly in the study of attachment theory. Simpson's work has contributed to understanding how early attachment security impacts relationships and behaviours in adulthood.

In his research, Simpson examined individuals classified in infancy as securely or insecurely attached to their caregivers, based on the Strange Situation procedure developed by Ainsworth. He followed these individuals into adolescence and adulthood to observe how their early attachment styles influenced their romantic relationships, social functioning, and emotional well-being.

Key Findings:

Stability of Attachment Styles : Simpson's study proved that early attachment styles, whether secure or insecure, tend to remain stable over time and influence later relationship dynamics.

Impact on Romantic Relationships : Individuals with secure attachments in infancy were found to have more trusting, long-lasting romantic relationships in adulthood. They were also better at seeking and providing support to their partners.

Resilience and Emotional Regulation : Securely attached individuals demonstrated greater resilience in relationship challenges and were more adept at regulating emotions.

Influence on Social Competence : The study also highlighted that early secure attachments were linked to higher levels of social competence, including better conflict resolution skills and more positive interactions with peers

MYRON-WILSON SMITH (1998 ) BULLYING: Myron-Wilson & Smith (1998) conducted a longitudinal study on 196 seven to eleven-year-olds. The findings showed the following association between early attachment type and bullying:

Secure attachment Generally not involved in bullying behaviour

Insecure avoidant More likely to be the victims of bullying

Insecure resistance: More likely to be the bullies!

MARY MAIN: Adult Attachment Interview

Mary Main and her colleagues developed the Adult Attachment Interview that asked for descriptions of early attachment-related events and for the adults’ sense of how these relationships and events had affected adult personalities (George, Kaplan, & Main, 1984).

It is noteworthy that the Adult Attachment Interview assessed “the security of the self about attachment in its generality rather than about any particular present or past relationship” (Main, Kaplan, & Cassidy, 1985), i.e. the general state of mind regarding attachment rather than how one attached to another specific individual.

Lorenz's study into “imprinting ” with geese supports an innate drive to form attachments. He demonstrated how geese separated from their natural mothers would imprint and form an attachment towards him or any moving object they had been first exposed to. This supports the idea that animals and possibly humans have an innate drive to form attachments as similar behaviour is seen across other species.

Harlow’s study with monkeys demonstrated the importance of attachment figures. Baby monkeys raised only with their mothers for the first six months appear socially inept and show no desire or interest in engaging with their peers, highlighting the crucial sensitive period Bowlby described.

However, both studies were animal studies, and their findings may not necessarily translate to humans due to clear differences in intelligence. Also, with monkeys, their behaviour may be more competitive for survival/resources than humans and therefore lack internal validity as this may not necessarily measure human behaviour. Also, such studies may lack external validity and wider generalisation into humans for this reason, also due to such differences.

A case study of Genie, a young girl raised in total isolation up until the age of 13 and abused by her father, adds weight to the problems that can follow without attachment aiding development. Even after rescue her cognitive development was limited and she struggled to learn language skills beyond the very basics. Behavioural problems were also evident, and she was never seen to recover. Bowlby’s emphasis on the early development of attachments and the consequences of failure to form this for cognitive development and the development of an internal working model appears to have credibility here.

The Koluchova twins disprove Bowlby’s theory of a time-sensitive period to form attachments and support learning explanations. The two boys were raised in isolation beyond this sensitive period and, once rescued, through the efforts of their adoptive mothers, showed no signs of abnormal behaviour at age 14 when re-examined. They had close attachments to their mothers and went on to live normal lives into adulthood with stable relationships. This highlights the role of “nurture” and how even this can mitigate later life for children who do not form attachments. More importantly, the real-world practical application here suggests that children in foster care can lead normal lives if attachments are disrupted with the right support.

However, both were isolated case studies and it is difficult to know for certain whether Genie had any mental impairment from birth which may have factored in. With the twins, it has been argued they always had each other to form attachments too which may have mitigated their lack of a primary caregiver. Therefore, wider generalisation is difficult based on these two studies alone as they may lack internal validity and not measure the true effects of what no attachment can do to people in the long term.

̈ EVALUATION OF BOWLB’S MONOTROPIC THEORY

Evaluating Bowlby's monotropic theory involves examining its seven core principles and the extent to which research supports each component. This theory has been foundational in understanding attachment, proposing that early relationships between infants and their primary caregivers have profound and lasting impacts on individuals' emotional and social development.

THE CRITICAL PERIOD Research supports Bowlby's assertion of a critical period for attachment formation, typically within the first 6 months to 2 years of life. Rutter's studies on privation, showing long-term difficulties in children who failed to form attachments within this period, underscore the theory's validity. However, it's important to note that Rutter focused on privation (the absence of any attachment) rather than disruption of attachment, adding nuance to our understanding of critical periods.

INNATE PROGRAMMING TO ATTACH (EVOLUTIONARY ADAPTATION) Substantial evidence supports the idea that infants are innately programmed to form attachments, as seen in behaviors such as social releasers, reciprocity, and interactional synchrony. Experiments like the "still face" experiment and studies measuring parents' physiological responses to their babies' crying highlight this innate drive and its evolutionary benefits, emphasizing the natural predisposition towards attachment.

CONTINUITY HYPOTHESIS Longitudinal studies, such as those conducted by Sroufe, Smith, and others, provide evidence for the continuity hypothesis, which suggests that early attachment styles predict later emotional and social outcomes. These studies have traced the developmental trajectories of individuals from infancy into adulthood, reinforcing the idea that secure early attachments contribute to healthier emotional and relational functioning later in life.

INTERNAL WORKING MODEL Research by McCarthy and others has lent support to the concept of the internal working model, showing how early attachment experiences shape perceptions of oneself and others, influencing future relationships. These studies demonstrate that individuals with secure attachments in infancy tend to have more positive self-concepts and more trusting, stable relationships in adulthood.

MONOTROPY Bowlby's concept of monotropy, the idea that infants have an innate tendency to attach to a single main attachment figure, has received mixed evidence. While Robertson and Robertson's studies on temporary separation challenged the exclusivity aspect of monotropy, suggesting that children can form multiple significant attachments, the core notion that there's often a primary figure who plays a crucial role in the child's development is widely acknowledged.

PROXIMITY The importance of proximity in forming secure attachments is well-supported by research, notably through Ainsworth's Strange Situation experiments. These studies have shown that infants use their caregivers as a secure base to explore their environment, underscoring the significance of physical closeness in developing secure attachments.

SOCIAL RELEASERS The concept of social releasers, behaviours in infants that elicit caregiving responses, is well-supported by empirical evidence. These behaviours, such as crying, smiling, and cooing, play a key role in the formation and maintenance of attachment by ensuring that caregivers provide attention and meet the infant's needs, reinforcing Bowlby's views on the evolutionary functions of attachment.

In summary, while robust research supports most of Bowlby's principles within his monotropic theory, the concept of monotropy itself has received mixed evidence, particularly regarding the exclusivity of a single attachment figure. Nonetheless, the overarching framework of Bowlby's theory remains influential in understanding attachment's critical role in human development.

Economic Implications / Socially Sensitive

̈ Has led Mothers to stay at home and still hurts mothers today. There is still the idea amongst some that mothers should not work.

̈ Erica Burman (1994) and other feminists state that it places a terrible burden of responsibility on mothers, pushing them into particular lifestyle choices and placing the blame on them if anything goes wrong in a child’s life.

̈ Further evidence shows that good substitute care in a nursery, the father or a family member does not harm social development. So a mother can happily return to work after having a child and remain economically active contradicting Bowlby’s theory.

Mental health

 P oor mental health and social relationships are also believed to be affected by the lack of an internal working model. Children with attachment disorder have no preferred attachment figure and struggle to relate and interact with others, which is evident before the age of five. This has been classed as a distinct psychiatric condition within the DSM. Any attachments behaviour gets the caregiver’s attention when the child needs looking after such as responding to: cooing, babbling, crying, would therefore, have been biologically hardwired into the brains of both infant and Mother; as these behaviours that have survival value for attachment. Reactive attachment disorder (RAD) is described in clinical literature as a severe and relatively uncommon disorder that can affect children.[1][2] RAD is characterized by markedly disturbed and developmentally inappropriate ways of relating socially in most contexts. It can take the form of a persistent failure to initiate or respond to most social interactions in a developmentally appropriate way—known as the "inhibited form"—or can present itself as indiscriminate sociability, such as excessive familiarity with relative strangers—known as the "disinhibited form". T.

RAD arises from a failure to form normal attachments to primary caregivers in early childhood. Such a failure could result from severe early experiences of neglect, abuse, abrupt separation from caregivers between the ages of six months and three years, frequent change of caregivers, or a lack of caregiver responsiveness to a child's communicative efforts. Not all, or even most such experiences, result in the disorder.[5] It is differentiated from pervasive developmental disorder or developmental delay and from possibly comorbid conditions such as intellectual disability, all of which can affect attachment behaviour. The criteria for a diagnosis of a reactive attachment disorder are very different from the criteria used in the assessment or categorization of attachment styles, such as insecure or disorganized attachment.

Children with RAD are presumed to have grossly disturbed internal working models of relationships, which may lead to interpersonal and behavioural difficulties in later life. There are few studies of long-term effects, and there is a lack of clarity about the disorder's presentation beyond the age of five.[6][7] However, the opening of orphanages in Eastern Europe following the end of the Cold War in the early 1990s provided opportunities for research on infants and toddlers brought up in very deprived conditions. Such research broadened the understanding of attachment disorders' prevalence, causes, mechanism, and assessment. It led to efforts from the late 1990s to develop treatment and prevention programs and better assessment methods. Mainstream theorists in the field have proposed that a broader range of conditions arising from problems with attachment should be defined beyond current classifications.[8]

Mainstream treatment and prevention programs that target RAD and other problematic early attachment behaviors are based on attachment theory and concentrate on increasing the responsiveness and sensitivity of the caregiver, or if that is not possible, placing the child with a different caregiver.[9] Most such strategies are in the process of being evaluated. Mainstream practitioners and theorists have presented significant criticism of the diagnosis and treatment of alleged reactive attachment disorder or attachment disorder within the controversial field commonly known as attachment therapy. Attachment therapy has a scientifically unsupported theoretical base and uses diagnostic criteria or symptom lists unrelated to criteria under ICD-10 or DSM-IV-TR or to attachment behaviours. A range of treatment approaches are used in attachment therapy, some of which are physically and psychologically coercive and considered to be antithetical to attachment theory.[10

Criteria FOR RAD

ICD-10 describes reactive attachment disorder of childhood, known as RAD, and disinhibited attachment disorder, less well known as DAD. DSM-IV-TR also describes reactive attachment disorder of infancy or early childhood divided into two subtypes, inhibited type and disinhibited type, both known as RAD. The two classifications are similar, and both include the following:

Markedly disturbed and developmentally inappropriate social relatedness in most contexts (e.g., the child is avoidant or unresponsive to care when offered by caregivers or is indiscriminately affectionate with strangers);[32]

the disturbance is not accounted for solely by developmental delay and does not meet the criteria for pervasive developmental disorder;

onset before five years of age (there is no age specified before five years of age at which RAD cannot be diagnosed);[32]

a history of significant neglect;

an implicit lack of identifiable, preferred attachment figure.

ICD-10 states about the inhibited form only that the syndrome probably occurs as a direct result of severe parental neglect, abuse, or serious mishandling. DSM states that there must be a history of "pathogenic care" defined as persistent disregard of the child's basic emotional or physical needs or repeated changes in primary caregiver that prevent the formation of a discriminatory or selective attachment presumed to account for the disorder. For this reason, part of the diagnosis is the child's history of care rather than observation of symptoms.

EXPLANATIONS OF ATTACHMENT: LEARNING THEORY

Ainsworth’s strange situation.