rasa theory literature review

The Rasa Theory: A Challenge for Intercultural Aesthetics

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• Rosa Fernández Gómez  

Part of the book series: Einstein Meets Margritte: An Interdisciplinary Reflection on Science, Nature, Art, Human Action and Society ((EMMA,volume 9))

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The rasa theory is widely known as the major contribution of Indian aesthetics to the field of aesthetics in general. During the twentieth century, first under the scope of the colonial approach of comparativist enterprises undertaken by Westerners as well as by Indians, and more recently from various post-colonial perspectives, the reflection on rasa or ‘aesthetic pleasure‘ — the expression by which it has been popularized in Western languages — has been considered as one of the deepest legacies of Indian aesthetic tradition. However, the change of emphasis has been considerable and should not be underestimated: It ranges from the semi-idealized interpretations of the first scholars of the last century until the eighties to the more sociological readings from post-colonial perspectives, considering it as a typical product of the Sanskritized elite of the Brahmin caste. 1 Trying to remain in the middle ground between these two extreme positions, I shall be content with suggesting some possible contributions made by this aesthetic theory to our modern aesthetic debate. I shall focus my reflection entirely on the first authors of the Kashmiri tradition, particularly on Abhinavagupta, and not on the subsequent reflections that were made from devotional perspectives, although, to a certain degree, I shall take the latter into account on the final part of my essay.

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Notes and references.

From the first angle we can still distinguish a few different perspectives: From the so-called ‘traditionalist ’ approach of one of the most prolific and foundational figures, Ananda Coomaraswamy, to the comparativist universalistic objectives of specialists in Abhinavagupta like K.C. Pandey (Cf. his 1959 Comparative Aesthetics , (II vols.), Chokhamba Sanskrit Series, Varanasi, and also his major work on Abhinavagupta: 1963 Abhinavagupta. An Historical and Philosophical Study . Chokhamba, Varanasi), and to other specialized books on rasa theory from the 1960s and 1970s like the two popular works by Masson and Patwarhan: Masson, J.L. & Patwarhan, M.V. 1970, Aesthetic Rapture, (II vols.) Deccan College, Poona; and 1961, Santarasa and Abhinavagupta ’ s Philosophy of Aesthetics,Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona, to mention just a few names of Indian origin, to studies by Western scholars mostly published in journals, such as Gerow, E., 1994, ‘Abhinavagupta ’ s Aesthetics as a Speculative Paradigm ’, in: Journal of the American Oriental Society, 114.2, pp. 186–208. Among the second approach, See for example the first essay of the entry ‘Indian Aesthetics ’ by Gitomer, D.L., in Kelly, M. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Aesthetics, 1998, Oxford University Press, Oxford, vol. II, pp. 482–490. This encyclopaedia, a recent and ambitious project, begins with an entry on Abhinavagupta and covers main topics of non-Western aesthetics

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There are numerous recent studies on this philosophy. See, for example, Mishra, K., 1999, Kashmir Saivism. The Central Philosophy of Tantrism, Sri Satguru Publications, Delhi

Although references to these states can already be found in ancient upanisads such as the Chandogya, the Mandukya Upanisad is entirely devoted to describe these four states relating them with the mystic syllable ‘aum ’ . See, for example, its English translation in: Radhakrishnan, S., [1953] 1996, The Principal Upanisads, HarperCollins Publishers, New Delhi, pp.695–705

See Aitareya Upanisad 1.2.4., where it is described how, at the request of the cosmic elements, the soul of the universe (ātman) determines their settlement in the different organs of the human body: fire, transformed into speech, enters the mouth, wind, transformed into sight, enters the eyes, space enters the ears, plants and trees, transformed in hairs, enter the skin, the moon, transformed into mind, enters the heart, death, transformed into expiring air, enters the navel and water, transformed into semen, enters the male sexual organ

Tripathi, K.D., 1995, ‘From Sensuous to Supersensuous: Some Terms of Indian Aesthetics ’, in: Vatsyayan, K. (ed.), Prakrti. The Integral Vision, vol. 3. The Agamic Tradition and the Arts (ed. Bäumer, B.), Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts and Motila Banarsidass, New Delhi, p. 75

A more detailed account of Indian epistemological aesthetics has been made by Marchianò, G., 2004, ‘Una búsqueda de un placer más elevado: el legado estético indio ’, in: Puelles Romero, L. & Fernández Gómez, R. (eds.) Estéticas: Occidente y Otras Culturas , Contrastes. Revista Internacional de Filosofía, Departamento de Filosofía, Universidad de Málaga, pp. 155–164

See Rgveda III.48.1, where it means ‘water ’, IX.63.13, ‘soma juice ’, I.37.5. ‘cow ’ s milk ’, and V.44.13, ‘flavour ’ . In Atharvaveda III.13.15 we also find ‘taste ’ . These meanings were assumed but became more abstract in upanisadic literature, adding the connotations of ‘essence ’ and ‘bliss ’ ( s. TaittirĪya Upanisad II.7.1)

Gnoli, R., [1956] 1985 The Aesthetic Experience According to Abhinavagupta , Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series, Varanasi, p. 25. It contains a transcription of the original Sanskrit version of the Abhinavabhāratī together with his own English translation and an extensive introduction. This was the first and foremost important Western translation of Abhinavagupta ’ s text into English. There is a Spanish translation directly from Sanskrit by O. Pujol and an introductory study by Ch. Maillard in Maillard, Ch. & Pujol, O. 1999 Rasa. El placer estético en la tradición India , Etnos Índica, Varanasi. I shall base my reflections and comments mainly on this version, referring to the original text according to Pujol ’ s numeric divisions. However, when I have considered that the English rendering of Gnoli was adequate I have quoted from it

This is Pujol ’ s translation, which differs entirely from Gnoli ’ s, actually quite obscure on this point

Maillard makes her own creative reading of Śankuka ’ s position, understanding his interpretation of rasa not as pleasure but as the essence of drama. Commenting on the above, she distinguishes between analogical thought, characterized by the proposition ‘it resembles ’ and based on logical comparison that presupposes a distance between two objects on one hand and aesthetic inference on the other, in which, ‘it is not the imitation that causes pleasure, but the fact that, without being what it represents, it is presented as if it were so ’ . What we have in aesthetic inference is no longer a regular analogy but a proper metaphor. Cf. Maillard, Ch. & Pujol, O. cit, p. 39–40

Pujol uses here the verb ‘to evoke ’ (Spanish ‘evocar ’ ), which, in my view, is preferable to Gnoli ’ s ‘revelation ’, since the latter has metaphysical dualistic connotations which the former avoids

Gnoli ’ s translation, cit, pp. 48–49. I have omitted a few lines because they refer more specifically to terminology belonging to the sāmkhya-yoga philosophy. According to this system, which Kashmir Shaivitsm ’ s metaphysics accepted, there are two ultimate principles of reality: Purusa or the Pure Light of Consciousness, and Prakrti , the primeval material principle of existence, also translated as ‘Nature ’ . The world unfolds as a result of Purusa ’ s forgetting his own luminous mirror-like self-conscious nature and identifying with Prakrti . The common individual is already the result of the expansion of Prakrti as a consequence of this. His mind ( well as anything in nature, is constituted by three ultimate elements ( gunas ): sattva (light, luminous and pleasant) rajas (mobile, dynamic and painful) and tamas (inert, obstructive and stupid). When sattva predominates, Bhattanāyaka says, there is expansion, when it comes into contact with rajas , there is fluidity and when it does so with tamas , there is contraction

Gnoli, 1985, pp. 55–56

Gnoli, 1985, p. 58

This can be illustrated by the very etymology of one of the Sanskrit terms used for ‘spectator ’ sahŖdaya , meaning literally ‘one of a similar heart ’ . The other term rasika , derives from rasa

Utpaladeva, the teacher of Abhinavagupta, said: ‘When more subjects (…) are aware of a given thing, f.e., a vessel, in the same place and time, then about this thing, they come to make up an unity. ’ Quoted in Gnoli, 1985, p. xxxvii. Two or more subjects can create a single psychic knowing subject when they meet in the same spatio-temporal conditions. When they separate, this state of epistemological unity dissolves

Tantraloka , XXVIII, vv. 373 ff. Quoted, with Sanskrit transliterations, in Gnoli, 1985, pp. xxxviii–xxxix

See Maillard, Ch., 1997, ‘La experiencia estética y la experiencia mística en la escuela de Cahemira ’ in Contrastes: Revista Internacional de Filosofía , vol. 5, Universidad de Málaga, pp.177–191

A few centuries after the Kashmiri authors, currents of devotionalism developed a parallel debate about rasa , especially bhakti rasa , giving rise to what we know today as ‘vaisnava aesthetics ’ . As an introductory study, see, for example, Sharma, R.N., 1996 Bhakti in the Vaisnava Rasa-Sastra , Pratibha Prakashan, Delhi

Gnoli, 1985, pp.72–73

Singh, J., [1979] 1988 Vijndnabhairava or Divine Consciousness: A Treasury of 112 Types of Yoga , Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, p.105

Another popular text, the Spanda-Karikas , also reads in a similar vein: ‘In that state is the Spanda-principle firmly established to which a person is reduced when he is greatly exasperated or overjoyed, or is in an impasse reflecting what to do, or is running for life. ’ In Singh, J., [1980] 1991 Spanda-Kārikās. The Divine Creative Pulsation , Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, p. 101. The commentary on the stanza recommends the yogi to concentrate on such states so as to become fully absorbed and by an act of introversion finally to be merged with the creative consciousness ( spanda ), which is acting through him. So we can appreciate in both classic texts of Kashmir Shaivism instructions for the yogi, which partially share one of the ingredients of the rasa experience: Absorption in intense emotional states

Fernández Gómez, R., 1988, ‘El columpio de los dioses: hacia una estética comparada del juego ’, in: Maillard, Ch. and de Santiago Guervós, L. (eds) Estética y hermenéutica , Contrastes: Revista Internacional de Filosofia, suppl. 4, Málaga

Gadamer, H.-G., 1977 Verdad y método (English: Truth and Method ), Sígueme, Salamanca, p. 157

Dyczkowski, M.S.G., 1991 The Aphorisms of Śiva. With a Commentary by Bhāskarācārya , Dilip Kumar Publishers, Varanasi, pp. 105–109

Dyzckowski, M.S.G, 1991, p.105

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Gómez, R. (2009). The Rasa Theory: A Challenge for Intercultural Aesthetics. In: Van den Braembussche, A., Kimmerle, H., Note, N. (eds) Intercultural Aesthetics. Einstein Meets Margritte: An Interdisciplinary Reflection on Science, Nature, Art, Human Action and Society, vol 9. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-5780-9_8

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That actually explain what's on your next test, rasa theory, from class:, intro to comparative literature.

Rasa theory is a key concept in Indian aesthetics that refers to the emotional experience or aesthetic flavor that a work of art, particularly in drama and poetry, evokes in the audience. It encompasses various emotions and moods that resonate with the viewer or reader, emphasizing the idea that art should evoke a deep emotional response and connection. This theory plays a significant role in classical Asian dramatic traditions and offers insight into the concept of the sublime, as it explores how different cultures perceive and experience beauty and emotion through artistic expressions.

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5 Must Know Facts For Your Next Test

• Rasa theory categorizes emotions into eight primary rasas: love, laughter, sorrow, anger, heroism, fear, disgust, and wonder, which together create a rich emotional landscape in art.
• The concept of rasa goes beyond mere emotion; it represents an aesthetic experience that allows audiences to engage deeply with the artwork.
• In performance arts, actors are trained to evoke specific rasas to create an immersive experience for the audience, emphasizing the emotional connection.
• Rasa theory has influenced not only Indian literature and drama but also has parallels in various cultural contexts where art seeks to evoke profound emotional experiences.
• The relationship between rasa and the sublime is evident as both concepts explore how art can transcend ordinary experiences and connect individuals to deeper truths.

Review Questions

• Rasa theory enhances emotional engagement by providing a framework for how specific emotions can be elicited through performance. In classical Asian dramatic traditions, actors utilize techniques rooted in rasa theory to convey particular feelings such as love or fear, allowing audiences to experience these emotions vicariously. This connection fosters a deeper appreciation of the performance as it resonates on an emotional level with viewers, highlighting the importance of audience response in assessing artistic success.
• The eight primary rasas are essential in shaping audience experiences as they offer a diverse palette of emotions for creators to draw from. Each rasa provides a distinct flavor that can transform a narrative or performance into an emotionally charged experience. By mastering these rasas, performers can evoke feelings that resonate deeply with viewers, creating a multi-layered engagement that enriches their understanding of both the work and their own emotional landscapes.
• Rasa theory's interpretation of emotion aligns with the broader concept of the sublime by emphasizing how art transcends everyday experiences to evoke profound feelings. Both concepts highlight art's ability to elicit awe and deeper reflection. In different cultural expressions, this connection is seen where artists aim to create works that resonate emotionally while also inspiring transcendence. Through this interplay between rasa and the sublime, we see how different cultures articulate their values and experiences through art, ultimately enriching our understanding of human emotion across contexts.

Related terms

Bharata : An ancient Indian sage credited with authoring the 'Natya Shastra', which lays the foundation for classical Indian performing arts and outlines the principles of rasa theory.

Sublime : Aesthetic quality that evokes a sense of grandeur or beauty that inspires awe and wonder, often linking to deeper emotional responses in the context of art.

Natya Shastra : An ancient Indian treatise on performing arts that covers aspects of drama, dance, and music, including the codification of rasa theory and its application in performance.

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Bharata’s Natyashastra is the oldest treatise on Rasa theory. The idea of Rasa in drama or poetry is an unique creation of Indian Dramaturgy and rhetorics. The translation of this word ‘Rasa’ is also very difficult as it is an enjoyment or experience in the mind of the sympathetic audience or reader. It is an individual experience brought through the expression of Bhava. The Rasa is created or promoted in the mind of a spectator by the Bhava being expressed. These two the Rasa and Bhava are interdependent as Rasa is not created without Bhava and Bhava has no existence if Rasa not promoted. Bhava can be considered as the physical body and Rasa being its soul. Bhavas, the emotions has no meaning in the absence of Rasa. Bhavas, the emotions represented in the performance get translated into emotional state of experience in the minds of spectator, so called Rasika and makes the presentation thoroughly enjoyable.

The eleven elements that are described as the essence of Natyashastra by Bharata, but Rasa and Bhava are the main aesthetic performances in provoking a desired emotion that leads to open the heart and mind of spectator to understand the message and idea of the poet. Rasa and Bhava occupy a significant treatment by Bharata. Which are followed by other nine Abhinaya, Dharmi, Vritti, Pravritti, Siddhi, Svara, Aatodya, Gana and Ranga that embellish a dramatic presentation.

Answering the inquiries made by the sages about Rasa and Bhava, Bharata puts in his Natyashastra as the combination of Vibhava, anbhava and Vyabhichari Bhavas creates the Rasa. Rasa is a produce in the minds of Sympathetic audience as a result of configuration of  the determinants, the consequents and the transitory moods. (Vibha vanubhava Vyabhichari samyogat Rasanishpattih – N.S.VI) Which are known as causes, effects and auxiliaries in the spoken language. The latent emotion that comes to be manifested by all the above things is called as Rasa like the food becomes relished with the mixture of different spices, Rasa  accompanied by these Bhavas become the source of Ananda. (Yathhi Nana Vyanjanaushadhidravya Samyogat Rasanishpattih, talah  Nanabhavopagramatrasanishpattih….Sthayinah bhavah rasatramapnuvanti – NS VI, Prose  passage). Then what are these Vibhavas, Anubhavas and Vyabhicharam Bhavas? Bharata explains in detail. Vibhavas – the determinants are the causes. As many things are Vibhavyate (determined) by this through words, Gestures and the representation of the Temperament,is named Vibhava.

  They create an illusionary reality when the character is being presented in a particular environment. When a spectator or a reader watches or reads a drama or poem, the basic emotion, (that is already exists) are excited by these Vibhavas – the determinants or the causes and leads to Anubhava – the consequentor the effect. Because they Anubhavyate (made to feel) things by means of words, gestures it is called Anubhava and it is related to words as well as to gestures and movements of major and minor limbs.2 (2. N.S.VII-5 Translation M.M.Gosh). This will be a voluntary expression like smile, shedding tears, laughter, scary looks, angry looks etc.

Thus Vibhavas and Anubhavas create a State (Sattva). The Vibhavas are two types Alambana Vibhavas and Uddipana Vibhavas. Hero and Heroines are Alambana and seasons, flowers etc are the Uddipana. The emotions, the cause of excitation retained in the mind of a sympathetic spectator/reader till the Rasa is experienced is called Sthayibhava or Static emotion such as love etc is of eight types. The physical involuntary expression follow the identification of the emotion of sympathetic mind are called Satvika Bhavas or responsive emotions like the glances, sweating, horripulation etc. It can be said that Satvika Bhavas are Anubhavas the consequents, but Satavika bhavas are involuntary actions in an exalted state and Anubhavas are voluntary expressions. These are again eight types. The emotions those do not have stability like Vibhavas, Sthayibhavas, but rise, exist and vanish quickly are called Sanchari bhavas – the transitory emotions. These are passing emotions which are compared to that of waves of the ocean promotes the creation of Rasa in the sympathetic mind and submerge into the same. They contribute to the creation of Rasa and retains till the realization of Rasa. These are 33 in number.

Vibhavas ( the determinants ) can be called as Sthayibhava as they are cause of excitation. The actor with concentrated mind can produce whatever the effect the situation demands. Anubhavas may be imitated simply by the practice of acting, but the responsiveness (Satva) is a mental state of an actor (inner feelings) expressed with the bodily actions ( external movements ).They are eight in number. (1) Sveda – Perspiration (2) Stambha – Stupefaction (3)   Romancha – horripilation(4) Svarabhanga – change in tone (5) Vepathu – trembling (6) Vaivanya – discoloration (7) Asru – tears (8) Pralaya – Swoon.

Vyabhicharibhavas – (the transitory emotions) are also called Sancharibhavas only flash momentarily and do not stay for a long time. The mind and body when subjected to an emotional impact, the mind experiences a series of emotions. They traverse between the actor and spectator, make the static emotion (Sthayi bhava)stronger and make the mind respond favorably to the experience of Rasa. They are 33 in number (1) Nirveda – aversion, (2)    glani – depression (3) Sankaa – doubt, (4) Asuyaa – envy (5) Mada – intoxication (6) Srama – weariness (7) Aalasya – indolence (8) dainya – piteousness (9) Chintaa – sorrow (10) Moha – passion (11) Smritti – recollection (12) Dhriti – courage (13) Vrida – shame, (14) Chapalatha – waywardness (15) Harsha – Joy (16) Avega – agitation (17) Jadata – stupor (18) Garva – arrogance (19) Vishada – despair (20) Antsukya – inquisitiveness (21) Nidra – sleep (22)     Apsnaa – epilepsy (23) Supta – dream (24) Vibodha – awakening (25) Amansha – indignation (26) Avahitta – concealment (27) Ugrata – ferocity (28) Mati – Knowledge (29) Vyadhi – Sickness (30) Unmada – insanity (31) Marana – death (32) Traasa – fright and (33) Vitanka – deliberation.

All these Bhavas are subordinates to the principal Rasa. The sentiment is caused by the Vibhavas, expressed by the Anubhavas and nourished by Sanchari bhavas becomes Rasa. In an ordinary world, due to woman, moon etc Rati is produced. It is expressed with glances etc and enriched by Glani, Niveda etc. When the Sthayibhava, the permanent mood is experienced due to Vibhava, Anubhava and Vyabhichari then it becomes Rasa. According to Bharata the Rasa, Rasa is only Lowkika Rasa. He explains it on the analogy of Paka Rasa. When we mix food made of rice wheat etc with some Vyanjanas (spices) a peculiar taste like Shadabha is produced which gives pleasure to the eater. Similarly with the help of Verbal, physical and mental gesticulation Rasa gives pleasure, Joy to the Sahridaya (sympathetic Spectator).Sahridaya as described by Bharata is a person “who can watch the dramatic performance with all his senses undisturbed, is pure and honest, is expert in judging the pros and cons, who can ignore a fault and lovingly appreciate merit of the dramatic performance.

The greatness of literature and the ability of the actor depend on how best he can achieve and produce rasa in the mind of the spectator/reader. Hence they are called Natya Rasa which is very important in any kind of art presentation.

Bharata has classified Rasas into 8 – 1. Srinagaara-amorous, 2.Haasya- humorous, 3. Karuna-pathetic, 4. Raudra-furious 5.Viira-valorous, 6. Bhayaanaka-horrifi, 7. Biibhatsa- repugnant, and 8. Adbhuta- wondrous. ( Sringarahaasyakarunaa raudraviirabhyayaanakaah|bhiibhatsaadbhutasanjnaachetyashtau naatye rasaah smritaah|| NS VI 15 ) The eight static emotions that are responsible for these eight rasa-s, in order are – 1. Love,2.Mirth, 3. Grief , 4.Anger, 5. Enthusiasm, 6.Fear , 7. Disgust and 8.Surprise .(ratirhaasaschashokascakrodhotsaahaubhayamtatha|jugupsavismayascheti sthaayibhavaahprakirtitaah|| NS VI 17)

There are four main Rasas Sringara ,Raudra,Bhayanaka and Vira. Hasya is produced out of Sringara.Karuna is from Raudra, Bhibhatsa is from Bhayanaka and Adbhuta is from Vira.(Sringaraaddhi bhavedhaaso raudraaccakarunnorasah  viraaschdhbhutotpattihi bhibhatsaatccabhayanakah NS VI 39) Bharata has indicated the corresponding colours and presiding deities for all the eight Rasas.Dark,Pale ,Grey ,Red ,Fair ,Black Blue , and Yellow are the colours of eight Rasas respectively. Vishnu, Pramatha, Rudra,Yama, Indra,Kala, Mahakala, and Brahma are thepresiding deities.Though the Natyashastra do not make any clear acceptance of Santarasa but Bharata has recognized it as a sentiment with Sama– calmness as the dormant emotion. This rasa was accepted by later authors on alankaras-poetics after a long discussion and therorized by Abhinavagupta. Subsequently the expression Navarasa (the nine Rasas ) came into existence.

Each Rasa has again several sub divisions  :

Sringaara Rasa has two sub-divisions – Sambhoga-union and Vipralambha-separation, in which anga – the action, nepathya-the costume and vak-the speech vary correspondingly.Rati is the sthayi bhava, the hero and heroine are Alambana Vibhavas the painting,the beautiful mansion, garlands moon-light etc are the Uddiipana vibhavas. the glances, smile, throbbing of the shoulder etc are the Anubhvas. Except indolence, cruelty and disgust all the remaining nirveda etc are the Sanchari bhavas. When all these conditions exist, Rati the sthayi bhava,(static emotion)becomes Sringara Rasa.

Hasya Rasa has six subdivisions -1.Smita-gentle smile, 2. Hasita-smile, 3. Vihasita-laughter, 4. Upahasita-laughter with riducule,5. Apahasita-uproarious laughter and 6. Atihasita-convulsive laughter. Hasya Rasa is also governed by variations in action, costume and speech as in the case of Sringaara rasa.Hasa is the permanent mood, oddity in speech ,ornaments, dress, and body, imitating others are the Vibhavas. throbbing of lips, nose, cheeks contradicting eyes etc are the Anubhavas. Dissimilation, sleep etc are Sancharibhavas. When all these conditions exist,Hasa the sthayi bhava,(static emotion)becomes Hasya Rasa. (NS VI) This is of two kinds 1.self centered, 2 centered in others.

Karuna  Rasa  has  three  subdivisions  1.Manasika  2.vachika  3.  Angika  caused  due  to separation from loved ones,damage to virtue, loss of wealth etc.Shoka the sthayi bhava affliction of a curse, separation from the dear ones, captivity, loss of wealth, banishment are the Vibhavas in Karuna rasa. It is expressed with drooping the limbs, shedding tears, nirveda, glani,autsukya etc are the Vyabhichari bhavas. When these conditions exist there KarunaRasa will be evoked. ( NS VI) Manasika is expressed by releasing long sighs, looking at the sky etc, Vachika is expressed by haha’ sounds and weeping, Angika is expressed by shaking head, moving hands, falling on the ground etc.

Raudra Rasa is expressed through action, costume and speech.Krodha-anger is the sthayi bhava,wicked people Rakshasas, demons fighting, anger, harsh words etc are the Vibhavas, red eyes, knitting eyebrows, striking, pounding the weapons etc are consequents. Avega, Amarsha ,Utsaha, Aurgya( ugrata ),envy,trembling, sweating etc are the Vyabhichari and Sativika bhavas. When these conditions exist Raudra Rasa is produced. (NS VI)anger is of four types directed towards enemy, towards servant,towards lover and towards an elder.

Vira Rasa has three sub-divisons viz., Daanavira-heroism in charity, Dharmavira –heroism in virtue and Yuddhavira heroism in war.Utsaha is its permanent mood , steadiness, valour, courage strength etc are the Vibhavas, change in speech, facial colour, horripulation etc are the Anubhavas , mati, agitation, arrogance, anger, recollection etc are the Vyabhichari bhavas, When all these conditions exist, Utsaha the sthayi bhava,(static emotion)is called Vira Rasa. (NS VI)

Bhayaanaka Rasa has three subdivisions 1.Vyaja-fictitious horror, 2. Aparadha-horror due to a grievous mistake 3. Vitrasita-horror due to fear complex. Bhaya-fear is the permanent mood, sight of forest, tiger, owls ,demons , ghosts etc death or captivity of relative etc are the Vibhavas, throbbing eyes, hands, feet, stupefaction, loss of facial colour ,and voice etc are  the Anubhavas, waywardness, fright, epilepsy, insanity, loss of voice, death etc are Vyabhichari bhavas. When all these conditions exist, Bhaya becomes Bhayanaka Rasa. ( NS VI )Bhaya-fear is of two kinds Akritrima-real and kritrima-assumed.

BhibhatsaRasa has two subdivisions -1.Shuddhaja-the exciting and 2.Udvegaja-the inflicting. The exciting is created by seeing disgusting insects etc., and the inflicting is created by looking at blood, intestines etc.Jugupsa is the permanent mood ,hearing unpleasant, abusive, offensive words, seeing or discussing harmful things are the Vibhavas, stopping all movements of the body, narrowing down and twisting of the mouth vomiting , spitting etc are the Vyabhichari bhavas. When all these conditions exist, Bhibhatsa Rasa will be produced.

Adbhuta Rasa has two subdivisions -1.Divyaja- the exquisite and 2.Anandaja the pleasurable.Vismaya is the permanent mood, sight of heavenly beings, aerial vehicles, attainment of desired object, seeing illusionary and magical art etc are the determinants, wide opening and gazing with unlinking eyes horripulation, shaking the body with joy, uttering praising words etc are the consequents. Stupefaction, perspiration, tears, agitation, hurry ,inactivity etc are the transitory moods. When all these conditions exist, Adbhuta Rasa will be produced. (NS VI) Divyaja is produced by the sight of celestial things and Anandaja is produced by happiness or joy.

Santa Rasa is yet a ninth, not mentioned by Bharata, but has been accepted as one of the Rasa’s during later periods. Sama or the placid static emotion gives rise to Santa Rasa.Nirveda (detachment)is the permanent mood, spiritual knowledge, detachment towards worldly pleasures, going to places of pilgrimage devotion towards God and teachers etc are the Vibhavas ,yama, niyama etc yogic postures, wearing acetic garments, kindness towards all the beings etc are the Anubhavas. depression, aversion, knowledge , recollection courage ,stupefaction etc are the Sanchari bhavas When all these conditions prevail Shanta Rasa is produced.

Bharata has stated that the main independent Rasa-s are four – the amorous, the valorous, the furious, and the repugnant; and that the remaining four rasa-s re- dependent – the humorous on the amorous, the pathetic on the furious, the wondrous on the valorous, and the horrific on the repugnant.

All the later writers accepted the Bharata’s principle on Rasa. Only his commentators tried to put their own views and points regarding the philosophical and psychological nature of Rasa.

The commentators are Bhatta lollata, Sri Sankhuka, Bhatta nayaka and Abhinavagupta. The theories of first three scholars can be known only through Abhinava’s commentary Abhinavabharati, and through some later writers like Mammata, Hemachandra, Vipradasa etc. A brief account of the summaries of the theories of the commentators on Natya shastra is as follws.

Bhatta-lollata : The first author in this path is Bhatta-lollata. He appears to be the first author to attempt a psychological analysis of Rasa. His theory is as follows. Rasa is produced when Sthayibhava is associated with Vibhavas, Anubhavas and Vyabhicaribhavas. The mental condition named Sthayi is produced by the vibhavas anubhavas and vyabhicaribhavas. Considering how vyabhicaribhavas which are also mental states, coexist long with sthayibhava which is also a mental state, he feels that sthayi which is a dormant state can coexist along with vyabhicaribhava, also a dormant state. The sthayibhava originally exists only in the Anukarya ( Ramadi ) but as the actor is identified with the Anukarya (as Rama) by the audience hence it is thought that Rasa is also exists in the actor himself. Only when it is conceived like this it is termed as Rasa. The Nata imitates the original hero and becomes the source of charm to the audience. The spectator is delighted when he finds the actor show the same mental attitude which originally belonged to the person whose part he is enacting .

His theory is known as the theory of production (utpatti vada). According to this theory Rasa is in the Nata and is produced (karya) in action. Vibhavas are karanas. Anubhavas are Gamakas. Vybhicaribhavas are Posakas.

That means – with the vibhavas Sita etc., Rasa is produced in Rama. It is understood with Anubhavas and enriched with vybabhicaribhavas. Thus the sentiment is generated in the personated character and secondarily recognized in the personating actor.

According to this theory ‘Samyoga’ means Utpadya-Utpadaka, Gamya-Gamaka and Posya-Posaka. ‘Nishpatti’ means Utpatti, Abhivyakti and Pusti. In other words, with theUtpadakas (Vibhavas) Sthayibhavas like Rati etc. are produced. It is understood ( Gamya ) by Anubhavas like Kataaksha, with the Posakas (Vyabhicaribhavas), it is nourished and Utpatti, Abhivyakti and Pusti of Rasa will be produced.

Sri Sankhuka :The above theory of Bhatta Lollata was refuted by Sri Sanikhuka. His theory is based on inference and is called Anumitivada, and is affiliated to the Nyaya School.

According to his theory Rasa is inferred to exist in the actor though not present in him. The actor with his training and constant practice represents the causes, effects and the auxiliaries which are technically called Vibhava, Anubhava and Vyahicaribhavas respectively. Thus the Sthayibhava like Rati etc. are inferred by the spectator as existing in the Nata. Thus sensed by the audience, Sthayibhava adds to itself a peculiar charm and fully envelops into a sentiment in the spectator. The spectator takes Nata as the hero Rama. This knowledge of ‘this is Rama’ is peculiar and different from Loukika Jnanas. This Jnana is the result of the great skill of the Nata in the four kinds of Abhinayas. Here “Ramatva” is not in the Nata but ascribed to him. In Natya, the artificial, imitation of Karanas, Karyas and Sahakarins are brought into use and are called as Vibhava, Anubhava and Vyabhicaribhavas. These Anubhavas and Vyabhicaribhavas are presented by the actor and with his skilful imitations; the spectator infers Rati etc sthayibhavas in the actor. In other words Rasa is the inference of the Sthayi like Rati etc. This Anumiti ( inference ) is quite different from the other inferences and gives pleasure with the actor’s skilful imitation and dressing etc. As the inference of Rasa is in the spectator, Rasa can be understood resting with them only. Though the Sthayi is not present in the actor, the spectator infers it is in the actor.

According to this doctrine ‘Samyoga’ means Gamya-gamaka bhava or Jnapya -Jnapakabhava Nishpatti means Anumiti by the vibhava. Anumiti and Vyabhchari bhavas becomes Rasa. This theory is known as ‘Anumitivada’ .

This theory is refuted by BhattaNayaka.

Bhatta Nayaka : BhattaNayaka refutes both the theories of Bhatta-Lollata and Srisankhuka. According to BhattaLollata Rasa is in Anukarya. According to SriSankhuka Rasa rests in Anukartr (imitator that is the actor). But according to BhattaNayaka, the sentiment is neither due to production ( utpatti nor due to apprehension (pratiti). He proposed a new theory in which Rasa is in which Rasa is in Samajika. According to him Rasa is enjoyed through the Vibhavas in relation with the enjoyer ( Bhojaka ) and is enjoyed ( Bhojya ).

His theory is as follows:The words have three different functions, namely, Abhida, Bhavakatva (Bhavana) and Bhojakatva ( Bhoga ) Abhida is actual and direct denotation of the word. With this function the ideas like Vibhavas, Anubhavas and Vyabhicaribhavas are conveyed. Next comes the second function i.e. Bhavakatva. In this function the individual traits are been removed and generalizes the Vibhavas etc happens. After thus Rasa is generalized its third function, namely, Bhojakatva happens. Here, the Satvaguna of the spectator completely suppresses the Rajoguna and Tamoguna and makes him forget his individuality. Thus enjoyment is described as a process of elevation similar to the enlightened, self-sufficient, and blissful knowledge, arising from the prominence of the attribute of goodness (satya) and is different from worldly pleasure.

Thus, according to BhattaNayaka, Rasa consists in the Sthayibhava or the permanent mood, experienced in a generalized form in poetry and drama through the powers of Abhida, Bhavakatva and enjoyed by a blissful process-Bhoga till it is raised to a state of pleasurable philosophic meditation of Brahma.

This theory of BhattaNayaka is known as Bhuktivada. Here Samyoga means Bhavakatva, Nishpatti means Asvadya or Bhukti, Vibhavas etc. which are Bhojakas. Rasa is Bhojya.

With the ( Bhojakas ) Vibhava etc., which are united together ( generalization –Bhavakatva ) the Rasa ( Bojya ) becomes relish able ( Bhukti) . Here the Rasa and its tools have a relation of food and its consumer Bhojya Bhojaka bhava.

According to Abhinavagupta, BhattaLollata appears to be the first commentator on Bharata’s Rasa Sutra who opined that Rasa is created in the character described in the play. Later, Sri Sankuka, another commentator, contradicted BhttaLollata’s opinion and stated that rasa is experienced by the actor alone. Still later, BhattaNaayaka, another reputed commentator, condemned these two arguments outright and gave the opinion the Rasa is experienced by the audience only as a result of the histrionic expression of an actor who portrays the emotions pertaining to the character described in the play. This argument is closer to Bharata’s explanation of Rasa Sutra. Although Abhinavagupta has agreed with the commentary of Bhattanaayaka he was not convinced by the reasoning the BhattaNayaka. So, he examined the views of all the three commentators in his commentary Abhinavabharatii ( Ch.VI ) and established with analytical reasoning that Rasa is experienced only by the sympathetic audience.According to Bharata the Rasa is only Loukika Rasa. He explains it on the analogy of Pakarasa. When we mix food made of rice, wheat etc. with some Vyanjanas a peculiar taste like Sadabha is produced. Similarly, with the help of verbal, physical and mental gesticulations, Rasa gives pleasure, joy to the Sahrdaya (spectator) like pakarasa which gives  pleasure to the eater. Hence, they are called Natyarasas, which are important in the presentations.

According to Abhinavagupta in the minds of the spectators a particular emotion (Sthayi Bhava) is already present in the form of Sanskara ( Vasana ). This inherent permanent mood inferred from its Loukika causes Ex: women, garden remains in the heart of the appreciating audience. This permanent mood depicted in a Kavya or presented in a Natya will have a special power and thereby lose their individuality and some kind of Universalization is affected. Such causes ( Karanas etc) were given special names like Vibhava etc. The Vibhavas are generalized or impersonalized in the minds of the reader or the spectator through the suggestive power of clever representation. Then the Sthayi which in the heart of the Sahridaya in the form of Vasana arouses and Rasa get manifested by itself. His theory is called as Abhvyaktivada.

In the world the love ( Rati) of Rama (hero) for Sita (heroine), Sita becomes Alambana, moon etc. are Uddipanas, Asrupata etc. are Karyas, Cinta etc. are Sahakarins. All these things with beautiful situations with meaningful words, gestures enter in to the heart of the Sahridaya. They create a special power Bhava in him. By this power the Vibhavas Sita etc. leave their individuality and appear to him in a generalized form. At this time they are called as Aloukikas. These Vibhavas etc with the power of suggestion evokes the Rati etc. The Sthayi bhavas those are present in the heart of Sahridaya in a subtle form. Thus Rasa is manifested by the removal of enveloping obstacles and reveals something which already exists.

This manifestation becomes the source of transcendent charm and is spoken as Rasa. This Rasananda is said almost to be equivalent to the Philosophic bliss .

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{ 7 } Rasa: The Bane of Indian Aesthetics

• Published: October 2011
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This chapter examines the concept of rasa in relation to Indian aesthetics. Rasa is at the heart of Indian thinking about the arts. The idea of alamkāra developed in the context of reflection on kāvya proved as inadequate as that of rasa developed in relation to the reflection on nātya in Bharata. Neither dhvani nor alamkāra can be accommodated within the theory of rasa . The dismal failure of Bharata's theory is clearly revealed in its incapacity to handle the notion of rasābhāsa that should have been just the place to come to grips with the problems raised by any theory that tries to be exclusively feeling centered.

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