psychosocial development theory essay

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Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development, Essay Example

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Basics of Erikson’s Theory

Erik Erikson endures as one of the relatively rare, modern psychoanalysts and theorists who openly incorporate the work of Freud.  Although Erikson would dismiss some Freudian precepts and expand dramatically on others, he nonetheless holds to the traditionally Freudian stress placed upon ego development as being strongly influenced by familial and biological factors during childhood and adolescence.  He departs from Freud in that he gives equal weight to developmental process which occur throughout a lifetime.

The initial eight stages identified by Erikson eventually evolved to nine, upon completion of his The Life Cycle Completed .  As will be seen in the examination of my own experience, what  distinguishes Erikson’s theory is the total and mutual interplay between individual and external world:  “In Erikson’s view…societal demands, which are present from conception through death, act as powerful mediating and shaping forces” (Salkind, 2004, p. 140).  In my estimation, his pragmatic awareness of the inherently codependent nature of living within society, as within the family, adds great substance to his concepts and renders them valuable tools with which to gain insight.

Personal History as Viewed Through Erickson’s Template

When I reflect on my own history, it strikes me that two of Erickson’s stages are highly significant, yet not easily translated into chronological or strictly “developmental” terms.  More precisely, “trust vs. mistrust” is a stage I believe to have been manifested in most of my youth; my parents were strict and I was, by and large, obedient to their desires, and this intrinsically reflects some measure of trust.  At the same time, I was always wary of their authority in the sense that I doubted the wisdom of it.  So, too, was the stage of “autonomy vs. shame” related to this, and equally lasting in my early years.  It seems that I was conflicted whenever I expressed a sense of myself that was in any way opposed to my parents’ expectations; the force of their convictions, deeply inculcated in me, translated the conflict into shame at not behaving correctly.

With regard to Erickson’s “initiative vs. guilt” stage, the same dilemma was present, and blatantly reflective of Erickson’s belief in the power of the external.  My own initiative was, in fact, indiscernible from the ambitions of my parents.  The math my father pushed me into before I was five is indicative of this pattern; I was encouraged to do well, which breeds initiative, but only within the confines of my parents’ expectations.  Only moving into the world of school, then, allowed the stage of “industry vs. inferiority” to work to my advantage.  Somewhat relieved of the pressures of my parents’ academic demands, my abilities, admittedly honed by them, permitted me a sense of accomplishment and the opportunity to display personal initiative.

Less scholastically related, I believe that “identity vs. confusion” categorized, and not unexpectedly, my adolescence.  Teens seek to break through boundaries, yet my parents were uniformly strict in regard to behaviors, friends, and other aspects of my personal life.  The conflict was inevitable and extreme. I had a sense of wanting to become my own person, even as I knew this was at variance with what my parents desired.  This only blocked growth, I feel, in either direction, and translated to my “intimacy vs. isolation” stage.  I married young and had a child soon after, thrusting myself into intimacy to counter the isolation I lived as the only child of exacting parents.

Suffering traumatic head injuries from a car accident at the age of twenty-four heralded, in a sense, my “generativity vs. stagnation” stage.  I was a divorced parent, and I embraced the challenges of raising my child well, even as my own background created the fear that I would repeat the patterns of my own parents.  Fortunately, and ironically, having been forced to “stagnate” in a hospital for most of a year fueled my motivations for giving, and generativity.  Beyond applying this to my daughter, I find “stagnation” is best held at bay by working with other young people in mentoring capacities.  As for the stage of “integrity vs. despair”, I am simultaneously wary and hopeful.  My youth and my accident have fueled in me strong introspective tendencies, which I must never permit to become brooding, and I believe I pursue gratifying volunteer work to reinforce the integrity that can eviscerate such feelings.

Life, as even Erikson must concede, is never quite as neatly arranged as to be successfully engaged in through even the most intent appreciation and understanding of its stages.  I do believe, however, that these stages are very real transitional periods, even as their durations must vary with the individual.  In my estimation, Erik Erikson’s work is, quite simply, a tool set.  These carefully elucidated stages act as frameworks within which I may sensibly, and honestly, confront my own experience and, in the process, evolve.

Salkind, N. J.  An Introduction to Theories of Human Development. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

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Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis that could positively or negatively affect personality development.

For Erikson (1958, 1963), these crises are psychosocial because they involve the psychological needs of the individual (i.e., psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (i.e., social).

According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths that the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises.

Failure to complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages and, therefore, a more unhealthy personality and sense of self.  These stages, however, can be resolved successfully at a later time.

Stage 1. Trust vs. Mistrust

Trust vs. mistrust is the first stage in Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. This stage begins at birth continues to approximately 18 months of age. During this stage, the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live, and looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care.

Here’s the conflict:

Trust : If the caregiver is reliable, consistent, and nurturing, the child will develop a sense of trust, believing that the world is safe and that people are dependable and affectionate.

This sense of trust allows the child to feel secure even when threatened and extends into their other relationships, maintaining their sense of security amidst potential threats.

Mistrust : Conversely, if the caregiver fails to provide consistent, adequate care and affection, the child may develop a sense of mistrust and insecurity . 

This could lead to a belief in an inconsistent and unpredictable world, fostering a sense of mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety.

Under such circumstances, the child may lack confidence in their ability to influence events, viewing the world with apprehension.

Infant Feeding

Feeding is a critical activity during this stage. It’s one of infants’ first and most basic ways to learn whether they can trust the world around them.

It sets the stage for their perspective on the world as being either a safe, dependable place or a place where their needs may not be met.

This consistent, dependable care helps the child feel a sense of security and trust in the caregiver and their environment.

They understand that when they have a need, such as hunger, someone will be there to provide for that need.

These negative experiences can lead to a sense of mistrust in their environment and caregivers.

They may start to believe that their needs may not be met, creating anxiety and insecurity.

Success and Failure In Stage One

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope . By developing a sense of trust, the infant can have hope that as new crises arise, there is a real possibility that other people will be there as a source of support.

Failing to acquire the virtue of hope will lead to the development of fear. This infant will carry the basic sense of mistrust with them to other relationships. It may result in anxiety, heightened insecurities, and an over-feeling mistrust in the world around them.

Consistent with Erikson’s views on the importance of trust, research by Bowlby and Ainsworth has outlined how the quality of the early attachment experience can affect relationships with others in later life.

The balance between trust and mistrust allows the infant to learn that while there may be moments of discomfort or distress, they can rely on their caregiver to provide support.

This helps the infant to build resilience and the ability to cope with stress or adversity in the future.

Stage 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second stage of Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development. This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately 3 years. According to Erikson, children at this stage are focused on developing a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence.

Autonomy : If encouraged and supported in their increased independence, children will become more confident and secure in their ability to survive.

They will feel comfortable making decisions, explore their surroundings more freely, and have a sense of self-control. Achieving this autonomy helps them feel able and capable of leading their lives.

Shame and Doubt : On the other hand, if children are overly controlled or criticized, they may begin to feel ashamed of their autonomy and doubt their abilities.

This can lead to a lack of confidence, fear of trying new things, and a sense of inadequacy about their self-control abilities.

What Happens During This Stage?

The child is developing physically and becoming more mobile, discovering that he or she has many skills and abilities, such as putting on clothes and shoes, playing with toys, etc.

Such skills illustrate the child’s growing sense of independence and autonomy.

For example, during this stage, children begin to assert their independence, by walking away from their mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices about what they like to wear, to eat, etc.

Toilet Training 

This is when children start to exert their independence, taking control over their bodily functions, which can greatly influence their sense of autonomy or shame and doubt.

Autonomy : When parents approach toilet training in a patient, supportive manner, allowing the child to learn at their own pace, the child may feel a sense of accomplishment and autonomy.

They understand they have control over their own bodies and can take responsibility for their actions. This boosts their confidence, instilling a sense of autonomy and a belief in their ability to manage personal tasks.

Shame and Doubt : Conversely, if the process is rushed, if there’s too much pressure, or if parents respond with anger or disappointment to accidents, the child may feel shame and start doubting their abilities.

They may feel bad about their mistakes, and this can lead to feelings of shame, self-doubt, and a lack of confidence in their autonomy.

Success and Failure In Stage Two

Erikson states parents must allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities within an encouraging environment that is tolerant of failure.

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will . If children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their increased independence, they become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world.

The infant develops a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence.

Suppose children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves. In that case, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then become overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem , and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their abilities.

How Can Parents Encourage a Sense of Control?

Success leads to feelings of autonomy, and failure results in shame and doubt.

Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities within an encouraging environment that is tolerant of failure.

For example, rather than put on a child’s clothes, a supportive parent should have the patience to allow the child to try until they succeed or ask for assistance.

So, the parents need to encourage the child to become more independent while at the same time protecting the child so that constant failure is avoided.

A delicate balance is required from the parent. They must try not to do everything for the child, but if the child fails at a particular task, they must not criticize the child for failures and accidents (particularly when toilet training).

The aim has to be “self-control without a loss of self-esteem” (Gross, 1992).

The balance between autonomy and shame and doubt allows the child to understand that while they can’t always control their environment, they can exercise control over their actions and decisions, thus developing self-confidence and resilience.

Stage 3. Initiative vs. Guilt

Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. During the initiative versus guilt stage, children assert themselves more frequently through directing play and other social interaction.

Initiative : When caregivers encourage and support children to take the initiative, they can start planning activities, accomplish tasks, and face challenges.

The children will learn to take the initiative and assert control over their environment.

They can begin to think for themselves, formulate plans, and execute them, which helps foster a sense of purpose.

Guilt : If caregivers discourage the pursuit of independent activities or dismiss or criticize their efforts, children may feel guilty about their desires and initiatives.

This could potentially lead to feelings of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.

These are particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a child’s life. According to Bee (1992), it is a “time of vigor of action and of behaviors that the parents may see as aggressive.”

During this period, the primary feature involves the child regularly interacting with other children at school. Central to this stage is play, as it allows children to explore their interpersonal skills through initiating activities.

The child begins to assert control and power over their environment by planning activities, accomplishing tasks, and facing challenges.

Exploration

Here’s why exploration is important:

Developing Initiative : Exploration allows children to assert their power and control over their environment. Through exploration, children engage with their surroundings, ask questions, and discover new things.

This active engagement allows them to take the initiative and make independent choices, contributing to their autonomy and confidence.

Learning from Mistakes : Exploration also means making mistakes, and these provide crucial learning opportunities. Even if a child’s efforts lead to mistakes or failures, they learn to understand cause and effect and their role in influencing outcomes.

Building Self-Confidence : When caregivers support and encourage a child’s explorations and initiatives, it bolsters their self-confidence. They feel their actions are valuable and significant, which encourages them to take more initiative in the future.

Mitigating Guilt : If caregivers respect the child’s need for exploration and do not overly criticize their mistakes, it helps prevent feelings of guilt. Instead, the child learns it’s okay to try new things and perfectly fine to make mistakes.

Success and Failure In Stage Three

Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If given this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions. Success at this stage leads to the virtue of purpose .

Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control, children develop a sense of guilt . The child will often overstep the mark in his forcefulness, and the danger is that the parents will tend to punish the child and restrict his initiative too much.

It is at this stage that the child will begin to ask many questions as his thirst for knowledge grows. If the parents treat the child’s questions as trivial, a nuisance, or embarrassing or other aspects of their behavior as threatening, the child may feel guilty for “being a nuisance”.

Too much guilt can slow the child’s interaction with others and may inhibit their creativity. Some guilt is, of course, necessary; otherwise the child would not know how to exercise self-control or have a conscience.

A healthy balance between initiative and guilt is important.

The balance between initiative and guilt during this stage can help children understand that it’s acceptable to take charge and make their own decisions, but there will also be times when they must follow the rules or guidelines set by others. Successfully navigating this stage develops the virtue of purpose.

How Can Parents Encourage a Sense of Exploration?

In this stage, caregivers must provide a safe and supportive environment that allows children to explore freely. This nurtures their initiative, helps them develop problem-solving skills, and builds confidence and resilience.

By understanding the importance of exploration and providing the right support, caregivers can help children navigate this stage successfully and minimize feelings of guilt.

Stage 4. Industry vs. Inferiority

Erikson’s fourth psychosocial crisis, involving industry (competence) vs. Inferiority occurs during childhood between the ages of five and twelve. In this stage, children start to compare themselves with their peers to gauge their abilities and worth.

Industry : If children are encouraged by parents and teachers to develop skills, they gain a sense of industry—a feeling of competence and belief in their skills.

They start learning to work and cooperate with others and begin to understand that they can use their skills to complete tasks. This leads to a sense of confidence in their ability to achieve goals.

Inferiority : On the other hand, if children receive negative feedback or are not allowed to demonstrate their skills, they may develop a sense of inferiority.

They may start to feel that they aren’t as good as their peers or that their efforts aren’t valued, leading to a lack of self-confidence and a feeling of inadequacy.

The child is coping with new learning and social demands.

Children are at the stage where they will be learning to read and write, to do sums, and to do things on their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the child’s life as they teach specific skills.

At this stage, the child’s peer group will gain greater significance and become a major source of the child’s self-esteem.

The child now feels the need to win approval by demonstrating specific competencies valued by society and develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments.

This stage typically occurs during the elementary school years, from approximately ages 6 to 11, and the experiences children have in school can significantly influence their development.

Here’s why:

Development of Industry : At school, children are given numerous opportunities to learn, achieve, and demonstrate their competencies. They work on various projects, participate in different activities, and collaborate with their peers.

These experiences allow children to develop a sense of industry, reinforcing their confidence in their abilities to accomplish tasks and contribute effectively.

Social Comparison : School provides a context where children can compare themselves to their peers.

They gauge their abilities and achievements against those of their classmates, which can either help build their sense of industry or lead to feelings of inferiority, depending on their experiences and perceptions.

Feedback and Reinforcement : Teachers play a crucial role during this stage. Their feedback can either reinforce the child’s sense of industry or trigger feelings of inferiority.

Encouraging feedback enhances the child’s belief in their skills, while persistent negative feedback can lead to a sense of inferiority.

Building Life Skills : School also provides opportunities for children to develop crucial life skills, like problem-solving, teamwork, and time management. Successfully acquiring and utilizing these skills promotes a sense of industry.

Dealing with Failure : School is where children may encounter academic difficulties or fail for the first time.

How they learn to cope with these situations— and how teachers and parents guide them through these challenges—can influence whether they develop a sense of industry or inferiority.

Success and Failure In Stage Four

Success leads to the virtue of competence , while failure results in feelings of inferiority .

If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious (competence) and confident in their ability to achieve goals.

If this initiative is not encouraged, if parents or teacher restricts it, then the child begins to feel inferior, doubting his own abilities, and therefore may not reach his or her potential.

If the child cannot develop the specific skill they feel society demands (e.g., being athletic), they may develop a sense of Inferiority.

Some failure may be necessary so that the child can develop some modesty. Again, a balance between competence and modesty is necessary.

The balance between industry and inferiority allows children to recognize their skills and understand that they have the ability to work toward and achieve their goals, even if they face challenges along the way.

How Can Parents & Teachers Encourage a Sense of Exploration?

In this stage, teachers and parents need to provide consistent, constructive feedback and encourage effort, not just achievement.

This approach helps foster a sense of industry, competence, and confidence in children, reducing feelings of inferiority.

Stage 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion

The fifth stage of Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development is identity vs. role confusion, and it occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18 years. During this stage, adolescents search for a sense of self and personal identity, through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals.

Identity : If adolescents are supported in their exploration and given the freedom to explore different roles, they are likely to emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and control.

This process involves exploring their interests, values, and goals, which helps them form their own unique identity.

Role Confusion : If adolescents are restricted and not given the space to explore or find the process too overwhelming or distressing, they may experience role confusion.

This could mean being unsure about one’s place in the world, values, and future direction. They may struggle to identify their purpose or path, leading to confusion about their personal identity.

During adolescence, the transition from childhood to adulthood is most important. Children are becoming more independent and looking at the future regarding careers, relationships, families, housing, etc.

The individual wants to belong to a society and fit in.

Teenagers explore who they are as individuals, seek to establish a sense of self, and may experiment with different roles, activities, and behaviors.

According to Erikson, this is important to forming a strong identity and developing a sense of direction in life.

The adolescent mind is essentially a mind or moratorium, a psychosocial stage between childhood and adulthood, between the morality learned by the child and the ethics to be developed by the adult (Erikson, 1963, p. 245).

This is a major stage of development where the child has to learn the roles he will occupy as an adult. During this stage, the adolescent will re-examine his identity and try to find out exactly who he or she is.

Erikson suggests that two identities are involved: the sexual and the occupational.

Social Relationships

Given the importance of social relationships during this stage, it’s crucial for adolescents to have supportive social networks that encourage healthy exploration of identity.

It’s also important for parents, teachers, and mentors to provide guidance as adolescents navigate their social relationships and roles.

Formation of Identity : Social relationships provide a context within which adolescents explore different aspects of their identity.

They try on different roles within their peer groups, allowing them to discover their interests, beliefs, values, and goals. This exploration is key to forming their own unique identity.

Peer Influence : Peer groups often become a significant influence during this stage. Adolescents often start to place more value on the opinions of their friends than their parents.

How an adolescent’s peer group perceives them can impact their sense of self and identity formation.

Social Acceptance and Belonging : Feeling accepted and fitting in with peers can significantly affect an adolescent’s self-esteem and sense of identity.

They are more likely to develop a strong, positive identity if they feel accepted and valued. Feeling excluded or marginalized may lead to role confusion and a struggle with identity formation.

Experiencing Diversity : Interacting with a diverse range of people allows adolescents to broaden their perspectives, challenge their beliefs, and shape their values.

This diversity of experiences can also influence the formation of their identity.

Conflict and Resolution : Social relationships often involve conflict and the need for resolution, providing adolescents with opportunities to explore different roles and behaviors.

Learning to navigate these conflicts aids in the development of their identity and the social skills needed in adulthood.

Success and Failure In Stage Five

According to Bee (1992), what should happen at the end of this stage is “a reintegrated sense of self, of what one wants to do or be, and of one’s appropriate sex role”. During this stage, the body image of the adolescent changes.

Erikson claims adolescents may feel uncomfortable about their bodies until they can adapt and “grow into” the changes. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity .

Fidelity involves being able to commit one’s self to others on the basis of accepting others, even when there may be ideological differences.

During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form their own identity based on the outcome of their explorations.

Adolescents who establish a strong sense of identity can maintain consistent loyalties and values, even amidst societal shifts and changes.

Erikson described 3 forms of identity crisis:

• severe (identity confusion overwhelms personal identity)
• prolonged (realignment of childhood identifications over an extended time)
• aggravated (repeated unsuccessful attempts at resolution)

Failure to establish a sense of identity within society (“I don’t know what I want to be when I grow up”) can lead to role confusion.

However, if adolescents don’t have the support, time, or emotional capacity to explore their identity, they may be left with unresolved identity issues, feeling unsure about their roles and uncertain about their future.

This could potentially lead to a weak sense of self, role confusion, and lack of direction in adulthood.

Role confusion involves the individual not being sure about themselves or their place in society.

In response to role confusion or identity crisis , an adolescent may begin to experiment with different lifestyles (e.g., work, education, or political activities).

Also, pressuring someone into an identity can result in rebellion in the form of establishing a negative identity, and in addition to this feeling of unhappiness.

Stage 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation

Intimacy versus isolation is the sixth stage of Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. This stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of approximately 18 to 40 yrs. During this stage, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with other people.

Intimacy : Individuals who successfully navigate this stage are able to form intimate, reciprocal relationships with others.

They can form close bonds and are comfortable with mutual dependency. Intimacy involves the ability to be open and share oneself with others, as well as the willingness to commit to relationships and make personal sacrifices for the sake of these relationships.

Isolation : If individuals struggle to form these close relationships, perhaps due to earlier unresolved identity crises or fear of rejection, they may experience isolation.

Isolation refers to the inability to form meaningful, intimate relationships with others. This could lead to feelings of loneliness, alienation, and exclusion.

Success and Failure In Stage Six

Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation.

Successfully navigating this stage develops the virtue of love . Individuals who develop this virtue have the ability to form deep and committed relationships based on mutual trust and respect.

During this stage, we begin to share ourselves more intimately with others. We explore relationships leading toward longer-term commitments with someone other than a family member.

Successful completion of this stage can result in happy relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and care within a relationship.

However, if individuals struggle during this stage and are unable to form close relationships, they may feel isolated and alone. This could potentially lead to a sense of disconnection and estrangement in adulthood.

Avoiding intimacy and fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression. 

Stage 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation

Generativity versus stagnation is the seventh of eight stages of Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. This stage takes place during during middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs). During this stage, individuals focus more on building our lives, primarily through our careers, families, and contributions to society.

Generativity : If individuals feel they are making valuable contributions to the world, for instance, through raising children or contributing to positive changes in society, they will feel a sense of generativity.

Generativity involves concern for others and the desire to contribute to future generations, often through parenting, mentoring, leadership roles, or creative output that adds value to society.

Stagnation : If individuals feel they are not making a positive impact or are not involved in productive or creative tasks, they may experience stagnation.

Stagnation involves feeling unproductive and uninvolved, leading to self-absorption, lack of growth, and feelings of emptiness.

Psychologically, generativity refers to “making your mark” on the world through creating or nurturing things that will outlast an individual.

During middle age, individuals experience a need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often having mentees or creating positive changes that will benefit other people.

We give back to society by raising our children, being productive at work, and participating in community activities and organizations. We develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture through generativity.

Work & Parenthood

Both work and parenthood are important in this stage as they provide opportunities for adults to extend their personal and societal influence.

Work : In this stage, individuals often focus heavily on their careers. Meaningful work is a way that adults can feel productive and gain a sense of contributing to the world.

It allows them to feel that they are part of a larger community and that their efforts can benefit future generations. If they feel accomplished and valued in their work, they experience a sense of generativity.

However, if they’re unsatisfied with their career or feel unproductive, they may face feelings of stagnation.

Parenthood : Raising children is another significant aspect of this stage. Adults can derive a sense of generativity from nurturing the next generation, guiding their development, and imparting their values.

Through parenthood, adults can feel they’re making a meaningful contribution to the future.

On the other hand, individuals who choose not to have children or those who cannot have children can also achieve generativity through other nurturing behaviors, such as mentoring or engaging in activities that positively impact the younger generation.

Success and Failure In Stage Seven

If adults can find satisfaction and a sense of contribution through these roles, they are more likely to develop a sense of generativity, leading to feelings of productivity and fulfillment.

Successfully navigating this stage develops the virtue of care . Individuals who develop this virtue feel a sense of contribution to the world, typically through family and work, and feel satisfied that they are making a difference.

Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.

We become stagnant and feel unproductive by failing to find a way to contribute. These individuals may feel disconnected or uninvolved with their community and with society as a whole. 

This could potentially lead to feelings of restlessness and unproductiveness in later life.

Stage 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair

Ego integrity versus despair is the eighth and final stage of Erik Erikson’s stage theory of psychosocial development. This stage begins at approximately age 65 and ends at death. It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and can develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life.

Ego Integrity : If individuals feel they have lived a fulfilling and meaningful life, they will experience ego integrity.

This is characterized by a sense of acceptance of their life as it was, the ability to find coherence and purpose in their experiences, and a sense of wisdom and fulfillment.

Despair : On the other hand, if individuals feel regretful about their past, feel they have made poor decisions, or believe they’ve failed to achieve their life goals, they may experience despair.

Despair involves feelings of regret, bitterness, and disappointment with one’s life, and a fear of impending death.

This stage takes place after age 65 and involves reflecting on one’s life and either moving into feeling satisfied and happy with one’s life or feeling a deep sense of regret.

Erikson described ego integrity as “the acceptance of one’s one and only life cycle as something that had to be” (1950, p. 268) and later as “a sense of coherence and wholeness” (1982, p. 65).

As we grow older (65+ yrs) and become senior citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity and explore life as retired people.

Success and Failure In Stage Eight

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom . Wisdom enables a person to look back on their life with a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death without fear.

Individuals who reflect on their lives and regret not achieving their goals will experience bitterness and despair.

Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.

This could potentially lead to feelings of fear and dread about their mortality.

A continuous state of ego integrity does not characterize wise people, but they experience both ego integrity and despair. Thus, late life is characterized by integrity and despair as alternating states that must be balanced.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Erikson’s Theory

By extending the notion of personality development across the lifespan, Erikson outlines a more realistic perspective of personality development, filling a major gap in Freud’s emphasis on childhood.  (McAdams, 2001).

• Based on Erikson’s ideas, psychology has reconceptualized how the later periods of life are viewed. Middle and late adulthood are no longer viewed as irrelevant, because of Erikson, they are now considered active and significant times of personal growth.
• Erikson’s theory has good face validity . Many people find they can relate to his theories about various life cycle stages through their own experiences.

Indeed, Erikson (1964) acknowledges his theory is more a descriptive overview of human social and emotional development that does not adequately explain how or why this development occurs.

For example, Erikson does not explicitly explain how the outcome of one psychosocial stage influences personality at a later stage.

Erikson also does not explain what propels the individual forward into the next stage once a crisis is resolved. His stage model implies strict sequential progression tied to age, but does not address variations in timing or the complexity of human development.

However, Erikson stressed his work was a ‘tool to think with rather than a factual analysis.’ Its purpose then is to provide a framework within which development can be considered rather than testable theory.

The lack of elucidation of the dynamics makes it challenging to test Erikson’s stage progression hypotheses empirically. Contemporary researchers have struggled to operationalize the stages and validate their universal sequence and age ranges.

Erikson based his theory of psychosocial development primarily on observations of middle-class White children and families in the United States and Europe. This Western cultural perspective may limit the universality of the stages he proposed.

The conflicts emphasized in each stage reflect values like independence, autonomy, and productivity, which are deeply ingrained in Western individualistic cultures. However, the theory may not translate well to more collectivistic cultures that value interdependence, social harmony, and shared responsibility.

For example, the autonomy vs. shame and doubt crisis in early childhood may play out differently in cultures where obedience and conformity to elders is prioritized over individual choice. Likewise, the identity crisis of adolescence may be less pronounced in collectivist cultures.

As an illustration, the identity crisis experienced in adolescence often resurfaces as adults transition into retirement (Logan, 1986). Although the context differs, managing similar emotional tensions promotes self-awareness and comprehension of lifelong developmental dynamics.

Applications

Retirees can gain insight into retirement challenges by recognizing the parallels between current struggles and earlier psychosocial conflicts.

Retirees often revisit identity issues faced earlier in life when adjusting to retirement. Although the contexts differ, managing similar emotional tensions can increase self-awareness and understanding of lifelong psychodynamics.

Cultural sensitivity can increase patient self-awareness during counseling. For example, nurses could use the model to help adolescents tackle identity exploration or guide older adults in finding purpose and integrity.

Recent research shows the ongoing relevance of Erikson’s theory across the lifespan. A 2016 study found a correlation between middle-aged adults’ sense of generativity and their cognitive health, emotional resilience, and executive function.

Interprofessional teams could collaborate to create stage-appropriate, strengths-based care plans. For instance, occupational therapists could engage nursery home residents in reminiscence therapy to increase ego integrity.

Specific tools allow clinicians to identify patients’ current psychosocial stage. Nurses might use Erikson’s Psychosocial Stage Inventory (EPSI) to reveal trust, autonomy, purpose, or despair struggles.

With this insight, providers can deliver targeted interventions to resolve conflicts and support developmental advancement. For example, building autonomy after a major health crisis or fostering generativity by teaching parenting skills.

• By understanding which stage a client is in and the associated challenges, social workers can tailor their interventions and support to address the client’s specific needs. For example, a social worker helping a teenager grappling with identity formation (Erikson’s fifth stage) might focus on fostering self-exploration and providing a safe environment for experimenting with different roles.

Erikson vs Maslow

How does Maslow’s hierarchy of needs differ from Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development?

Erikson vs Freud

Freud (1905) proposed a five-stage model of psychosexual development spanning infancy to puberty, focused on the maturation of sexual drives. While groundbreaking, Freud’s theory had limitations Erikson (1958, 1963) aimed to overcome.

• Erikson expanded the timeline through the full lifespan, while Freud focused only on the first few years of life. This more holistic perspective reflected the ongoing social challenges confronted into adulthood and old age.
• Whereas Freud highlighted biological, pleasure-seeking drives, Erikson incorporated the influence of social relationships, culture, and identity formation on personality growth. This broader psychosocial view enhanced realism.
• Erikson focused on the ego’s growth rather than the primacy of the id. He saw personality developing through negotiation of social conflicts rather than only frustration/gratification of innate drives.
• Erikson organized the stages around psychosocial crises tied to ego maturation rather than psychosexual erogenous zones. This reformulation felt more relevant to personal experiences many could identify with.
• Finally, Erikson emphasized healthy progression through the stages rather than psychopathology stemming from fixation. He took a strengths-based perspective focused on human potential.

Summary Table

Like Freud and many others, Erik Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order, and builds upon each previous stage. This is called the epigenetic principle.

Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development include:

Bee, H. L. (1992). The developing child . London: HarperCollins.

Brown, C., & Lowis, M. J. (2003). Psychosocial development in the elderly: An investigation into Erikson’s ninth stage.  Journal of Aging Studies, 17 (4), 415–426.

Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society . New York: Norton.

Erickson, E. H. (1958). Young man Luther: A study in psychoanalysis and history . New York: Norton.

Erikson, E. H. (1963). Youth: Change and challenge . New York: Basic books.

Erikson, E. H. (1964). Insight and responsibility . New York: Norton.

Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis . New York: Norton.

Erikson E. H . (1982). The life cycle completed . New York: W.W. Norton & Company.

Erikson, E. H. (1959). Psychological issues . New York, NY: International University Press

Fadjukoff, P., Pulkkinen, L., & Kokko, K. (2016). Identity formation in adulthood: A longitudinal study from age 27 to 50.  Identity ,  16 (1), 8-23.

Freud, S. (1905). Three essays on the theory of sexuality.  Standard Edition 7 : 123- 246.

Freud, S. (1923). The ego and the id . SE, 19: 1-66.

Gross, R. D., & Humphreys, P. (1992). Psychology: The science of mind and behavior . London: Hodder & Stoughton.

Logan , R.D . ( 1986 ). A reconceptualization of Erikson’s theory: The repetition of existential and instrumental themes. Human Development, 29 , 125 – 136.

Malone, J. C., Liu, S. R., Vaillant, G. E., Rentz, D. M., & Waldinger, R. J. (2016). Midlife Eriksonian psychosocial development: Setting the stage for late-life cognitive and emotional health.  Developmental Psychology ,  52 (3), 496.

McAdams, D. P. (2001). The psychology of life stories . Review of General Psychology , 5(2), 100.

McCrae, R. R., & Costa Jr, P. T. (1997). Personality trait structure as a human universal . American Psychologist, 52(5) , 509.

Meeus, W., van de Schoot, R., Keijsers, L., & Branje, S. (2012). Identity statuses as developmental trajectories: A five-wave longitudinal study in early-to-middle and middle-to-late adolescents.  Journal of Youth and Adolescence ,  41 , 1008-1021.

Osborne, J. W. (2009). Commentary on retirement, identity, and Erikson’s developmental stage model.  Canadian Journal on Aging/La Revue canadienne du vieillissement ,  28 (4), 295-301.

Rosenthal, D. A., Gurney, R. M., & Moore, S. M. (1981). From trust on intimacy: A new inventory for examining Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development.  Journal of Youth and Adolescence ,  10 (6), 525-537.

Sica, L. S., Aleni Sestito, L., Syed, M., & McLean, K. (2018). I became adult when… Pathways of identity resolution and adulthood transition in Italian freshmen’s narratives.  Identity ,  18 (3), 159-177.

Vogel-Scibilia, S. E., McNulty, K. C., Baxter, B., Miller, S., Dine, M., & Frese, F. J. (2009). The recovery process utilizing Erikson’s stages of human development.  Community Mental Health Journal ,  45 , 405-414.

What is Erikson’s main theory?

Erikson said that we all want to be good at certain things in our lives. According to psychosocial theory, we go through eight developmental stages as we grow up, from being a baby to an old person. In each stage, we have a challenge to overcome.

If we do well in these challenges, we feel confident, our personality grows healthily, and we feel competent. But if we don’t do well, we might feel like we’re not good enough, leading to feelings of inadequacy.

What is an example of Erikson’s psychosocial theory?

Throughout primary school (ages 6-12), children encounter the challenge of balancing industry and inferiority. During this period, they start comparing themselves to their classmates to evaluate their own standing.

As a result, they may either cultivate a feeling of pride and achievement in their academics, sports, social engagements, and family life or experience a sense of inadequacy if they fall short.

Parents and educators can implement various strategies and techniques to support children in fostering a sense of competence and self-confidence.

Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development Explained

Three hundred years later, the psychologist Erik Erikson offered a more modern, and less sexually biased (equality was very much an issue in Tudor England), take on psychological transformation.

In Childhood and Society , Erikson (1950) examined and mapped the personal development of humans throughout their lifetime.

Erikson, a psychoanalyst and professor at Harvard, produced what was to become psychology’s most popular and influential theory of human development. His model – including eight stages of psychosocial growth – replaced Freud’s controversial theory centered on psychosexual development.

Perhaps most importantly, each stage – influenced by biological, psychological, and social factors – was sequential, from birth to infancy, childhood into adulthood, middle age into, finally, old age.

And, unlike other theories, the personality transformation did not end with adolescence but, arising from conflict, continued through to finality.

This article explores the eight stages that make up Erikson’s developmental theory before discussing subsequent criticisms and our own resources for supporting growth and building strengths.

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This Article Contains:

Stages of psychosocial development, stage 1: trust versus mistrust, stage 2: autonomy versus shame and doubt, stage 3: initiative versus guilt, stage 4: industry versus inferiority, stage 5: identity versus role confusion, stage 6: intimacy versus isolation, stage 7: generativity versus stagnation, stage 8: integrity versus despair, criticisms of erikson’s theory, 5 books on the topic, relevant positivepsychology.com resources, a take-home message.

Erik Erikson’s (1958, 1963) psychosocial development theory proposes that our personality develops through eight stages, from infancy to old age.

He argued that social experience was valuable throughout life, with each stage recognizable by the specific conflict we encounter between our psychological needs and the surrounding social environment.

To become fully functional, confident members of society, we must successfully complete each stage and resolve two conflicting states; for example, those of trust versus mistrust  and autonomy versus shame .

When successful, we acquire basic human virtues and a healthy personality; we become well adjusted and better prepared for challenges later in life.

Failure, on the other hand, leads to difficulty navigating our future and a profound impact on our sense of self, our personality. We are left feeling inadequate.

The diagram below represents Erikson’s eight psychological stages and the tensions most relevant at particular stages of the lifespan (modified from Syed & McLean, 2018).

Note that the age ranges below are indicative of the stages described by Erikson and vary across the literature.

During our initial 18 months, we are uncertain about the world in which we find ourselves and must develop basic trust.

After all, we are entirely reliant on our caregivers for warmth, love, stability, and nurturing. If reliable and predictable, we gain confidence, a sense of security, and a feeling of safety in the world (Syed & McLean, 2018).

If care is inconsistent and unreliable, then trust will fail. For example, when caregivers reject us, fail to meet our needs, or are emotionally detached , we may conclude that we cannot rely on adults.

Failure in stage one results in the development of fear, mistrust, suspicion, anxiety, and, ultimately, a belief that the world is unpredictable. We may become anxious, believing we have no control or influence on our environment.

A good balance between trust and mistrust means we remain open to experience and yet aware of the potential for danger. After all, it is unlikely and ill advised for a child to become entirely trusting or entirely lacking in trust.

Success within stage one leads to the virtue of hope – the sense that whatever crisis we meet, there will be someone around to provide support and help.

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Stage two focuses on early childhood – 18 months to three years – when we are gaining independence and an increased perception of control over our physical skills (Erikson, 1958, 1963).

Though early on in development, we begin to develop a heightened sense of personal control and acquire feelings of independence.

Typically around this time, parents, teachers, and caregivers begin giving children some degree of choice, letting them perform actions on their own. Therefore, we become increasingly mobile and develop physically, asserting our independence, putting on clothes, and playing with other children and toys.

According to Erikson, potty training is crucial to learning physical control and, ultimately, the development of autonomy.

Success over bodily functions and taking control of simple choices leads to a sense of personal power, feelings of autonomy, increased independence, and a greater sense of being able to survive in the world.

During stage two, parents should expect and encourage their child to explore limits, gently stretching them, while avoiding criticism when they fail. The resulting feeling of security and confidence are crucial for our progress in subsequent stages and leads to the virtue of will.

However, if we are overly criticized and controlled, or prevented from asserting ourselves, we may feel unable to survive, lacking in self-esteem , and excessively dependent on others. Indeed, feeling a sense of shame over toilet accidents can impact our sense of personal control and increase levels of doubt.

An appropriate balance between shame, doubt, and autonomy is essential to the virtue of will – the child believing they can act with intention, rather than experience a sense of inadequacy and doubt.

At this point in our psychosocial development – when conflict occurs between initiative and guilt – we learn to assert ourselves and typically begin to direct play and social interactions.

To our parents, our behavior may seem vigorous, overly assertive, or even aggressive, and yet we are exploring our interpersonal skills.

If overly restricted from such exploration – either by parental control or through increased criticism – we can develop a sense of guilt. Similarly, while constant questioning in this stage can be tiring at times, if it is curtailed by caregivers, we may see ourselves as a nuisance, inhibiting our interactions with others.

And yet, if we are successful in stage three, we learn to feel capable, secure, and able to use our initiative.

If we fail, we may suffer guilt and self-doubt and become less likely to lead.

Success in stage three is vital to building the virtue of purpose as opposed to feelings of guilt. However, a balance between initiative and guilt remains key to developing a healthy mindset .

In stage four of Erikson’s psychosocial theory – ages 5 to 12 years – we are immersed in a world of education, learning to read, write, and solve math puzzles (Erikson, 1958, 1963).

Teachers play an essential role in our continued growth within this stage. At the same time, peer groups and social interactions are increasingly relevant in the development of our self-esteem, and feelings of pride arise as we successfully perform or complete tasks.

Indeed, winning approval is a motivating factor, and we soon learn to associate it with displaying specific competencies valued by our peers and adults.

Over these years, demands on us increase considerably; it becomes essential for us to learn how to handle the many social and academic expectations (Syed & McLean, 2018).

If successful, development leads to the virtue of competence, while failure can result in a sense of inferiority, where we feel unable to perform specific skills.

Balance in stage four leads to a sense of accomplishment and competence, and we start to believe in our ability to handle existing and novel situations.

Indeed, learning to fail can be a crucial element in our maturation – leading to the development of modesty – while success meets our basic psychological need for feelings of competence (Ryan & Deci, 2018).

New opportunities, experiences, and changes to the body and mind in stage five are crucial to our sense of who we are and have a considerable bearing on our adult years.

These formative years – ages 12 to 18 – provide a valuable and in-depth exploration of beliefs, goals, and values while searching for personal identity and a sense of self.

The transition between childhood and adulthood is crucial. We become increasingly independent and begin to consider careers, family, friends, and our place in society.

According to Erikson (1963), the fifth stage of psychosocial development exists “ between the morality learned by the child, and the ethics to be developed by the adult. ”

As such, it is vital for young adults to learn the roles that we may adopt once mature – including sexually – as our body image transforms.

Success leads to the belief that we are staying true to who we are, expressed by virtue of fidelity . Erikson claims that we grow into our bodies and begin to form our identity as a result of our ongoing explorations. And, with appropriate encouragement and reinforcement, we move toward increasing independence and a stronger sense of control and self (Marcia, 2010).

Otherwise, our inability to create a sense of identity within society (“ Who am I? I don’t know what I want to do when I am older ”) results in confusion and a poor sense of self. This failure can only lead to insecurity and unsureness of ourselves, our future, and where we fit.

Success in stage five, according to Erikson, leads to fidelity – alignment with the standards and expectations of the social group to which we belong. After all, our conscious sense of self results from this social interaction and is crucial in our balance between identity and confusion.

Ultimately identity provides us with our integrated sense of self – avoiding identity crisis – that will last throughout our lives, guiding how we behave and what we believe.

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As young adults, we are motivated to explore personal relationships and our desire to form intimate relationships.

In the sixth stage of Erikson’s psychosocial development theory, young adulthood takes place between the ages of 18 and 40. During this time, major conflict can arise as we attempt to form longer term commitments outside of our family, with varying degrees of success.

And yet, positive outcomes result in healthy, happy relationships that are secure and enduring, developing the virtue of love . Erikson’s (1963) view is that the ability to love marks the ultimate success of stage six – when relationships are meaningful and lasting.

Failure – whether beyond or within our control – to form appropriate bonds or the avoidance of intimacy may result in loneliness, a sense of isolation, and depression.

Those with a poor sense of self are typically emotionally isolated and less committed to relationships.

The intimacy versus isolation stage builds upon the success or failure of stage five. After all, a strong sense of personal identity is crucial to developing relationships that are intimate and strong.

During middle adulthood , we display our need for longevity, not necessarily in a physical sense, but as life’s continuation in our children or the long-term impact we have on others.

We aim to make a mark on the world, to nurture things that will outlive us. We may look for ways to be more productive and valuable to our society, with an eye on the bigger picture.

Success is exemplified by virtue of care – the feeling of being useful in life, accomplishing something, and contributing to society. We are proud of who we are, what we have achieved, our children and who they have become, and the strong relationship we have with our partner.

Failure looks quite different. We feel we have had little impact on the world, failing to make that dent in the universe as the late Steve Jobs described. If so, we feel unproductive, uninvolved, disillusioned, and disconnected from the world in which we live.

Unlike previous theories, Erikson’s model covered the entirety of life ‘ from the cradle to the grave .’

Our final stage of psychosocial development takes us from 65 years of age to death – known as maturity .

This stage is one of reflection. We slow down, are less productive, and spend time reviewing our accomplishments throughout life.

Success is in the belief that we have achieved our goals and found happiness, leading to the feeling of integrity , “a sense of coherence and wholeness” (Erikson, 1982). We feel we have achieved much and are ready to meet our end with a sense of peace. Success leads to the virtue of wisdom – a sense of completeness.

On the other hand, failure may be experienced as despair and regret over things not done, completed, or mistakes made. We are bitter about the past and present, frightened about coming to the end of our life without a sense of having lived well.

8 Stages of development by Erik Erikson

While Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development theory has been incredibly influential, it has received several challenges, including (Marcia, 2010; McCrae & Costa, 1997; Brown & Lowis, 2003; Orenstein, 2020):

• Stages may not be sequential or play out in the order described.
• The age range for each stage may not be correct.
• Stage eight suggests a move from activity to passivity, but many people are highly productive, active members of the community in their later years.
• Searching for identity may occur many times throughout our lives, not only during adolescence.
• The development processes involved in each stage are unclear.
• How does the individual resolve the conflicts and move on to the next stage? A single, universal mechanism seems unlikely.
• How do we truly define success? After all, the idea of balance will vary between individuals, cultures, and, over time, within ourselves.
• How do we resolve such conflicts later in life?

In Insight and Responsibility , Erikson (1964) himself acknowledges some of the above points. He suggests that the theory offers a descriptive overview of psychosocial development and does not attempt to define the detailed mechanisms or steps involved.

Erik Erikson had a long career and left an extensive legacy. Below is a reduced list of his key works, along with other guides to his theory.

• Childhood and Society – Erik Erikson ( Amazon )
• Insight and Responsibility – Erik Erikson ( Amazon )
• Identity: Youth and Crisis – Erik Erikson ( Amazon )
• Identity’s Architect: A Biography of Erik H. Erikson – Lawrence Friedman ( Amazon )
• The Oxford Handbook of Identity Development – Kate McLean and Moin Syed ( Amazon )
• The SAGE Encyclopedia of Intellectual and Developmental Disorders – Ellen Braaten (editor) ( Amazon )

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• Learn to focus on your strengths rather than your weaknesses using the Aware, Explore, Apply Model .
• Use the Exploring Character Strengths guide to identify and reflect on your character strengths.
• Adopt a Growth Mindset provides an excellent guide to replacing fixed mindset thinking with growth statements.

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Erikson’s psychosocial model extends the idea of personal development across our lifetime from our early years as a baby to old age.

His work was ground breaking. The staged psychosocial theory led to a reconceptualization of how we develop as humans and an awareness that we continue to grow throughout life, not only in our early years.

Nevertheless, we must be aware that the model is a helpful tool rather than a testable theory; it provides a lens through which we can review our lifelong transformation rather than a prescribed set of steps.

And yet, the model’s greatest strength is its ability to connect our psychological transformation from physical birth to death, overcoming conflicts along the way.

While we may question whether the stages are a good fit personally, we recognize the stages, the progression of our development, and how we carry forward learnings into later life.

Use Erikson’s model alongside the personal development tools provided as a way of looking at human growth over time, offering insightful analysis and a focus for dialogue and self-discovery.

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• Braaten, E. (2018).  The SAGE encyclopedia of intellectual and developmental disorders.  SAGE.
• Brown, C., & Lowis, M. J. (2003). Psychosocial development in the elderly: An investigation into Erikson’s ninth stage. Journal of Aging Studies, 17 (4), 415–426.
• Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society . Norton.
• Erikson, E. H. (1958). Young man Luther: A study in psychoanalysis and history. Norton.
• Erikson, E. H. (1963). Youth: Change and challenge. Basic books.
• Erikson, E. H. (1964). Insight and responsibility. Norton.
• Erikson, E. H. (1968).  Identity: Youth and crisis. Norton.
• Erikson, E. H. (1982).  The life cycle completed.  Norton.
• Freidman, L. J. (1999).  Identity’s architect: A biography of Erik H. Erikson. Harvard University Press.
• Marcia, J. E. (2010). Life transitions and stress in the context of psychosocial development. In T. W. Miller (Ed.), Handbook of stressful transitions across the lifespan (pp. 19–34). Springer Science + Business Media.
• McLean, K. C., & Syed, M. U. (2015).  The Oxford handbook of identity development . Oxford University Press.
• McCrae, R. R., & Costa, Jr., P. T. (1997). Personality trait structure as a human universal. American Psychologist, 52 (5), 509.
• Orenstein, G. (2020, March 9). Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development. Retrieved July 28, 2020, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK556096/
• Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2018). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness.  Guilford Press.
• Syed, M., & McLean, K. C. (2018). Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. In E. Braaten, The SAGE encyclopedia of intellectual and developmental disorders. SAGE.

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Hello. Thank you for this article it helped me a lot with my homework, I am currently studying psychology.

Outstanding article. The APA citation would be helpful for students.

Hi Dr. Greimel,

You can reference this article in APA 7th as follows: Sutton, J. (2020, August 5th). Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development Explained. PositivePsychology.com. https://positivepsychology.com/erikson-stages/

Hope this helps! Kind regards, Julia | Community Manager

My name is Aleeya and I am from Malaysia. I am an undergraduate student under the Bachelor of Teaching Degree Programme at Institute of Teacher Education Tuanku Bainun Campus in Pulau Pinang, Malaysia.

For your information, I am currently carrying out my EDUP3103 (Developmental Psychology for Children and Adolescents) course continuous assessment.

In view of your expertise, I would like to ask your opinion about the teaching and learning activities that are suitable to be carry out for Erikson’s theory. I suggested “Create A Glitter Jar” activity. In this activity, students are required to write what have they accomplished in a day and put it into the jar.

Do you think this activity is suitable to be implemented for school-aged children, based on Erikson’s theory? Do you have any other suggestions?

Your kind assistance is very much appreciated. Thank you very much. Have a good day!

Thank you for your question. This exercise sounds very interesting. In my opinion, this activity could be fitting for the Industry vs. Inferiority stage as it teaches the kids to recognize their own accomplishments. However, one small adjustment that would touch upon the “winning approval” aspect of this phase could be receiving direct feedback from the teacher on their jar.

I hope this helps! Good look 🙂

Kind regards, -Caroline | Community Manager

Hi I am a scholar at the national university of Lesotho and this information has been very helpful! I am a first year student in my second semester and this is going to help me answer a question I was given on my assignment “Using your words,discuss any TWO STAGES OF Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory indicating how you would advise parents to help a baby or child to successfully move from one stage to the stage.”

I am teaching a graduate course in Child and Adolescent counseling, may I use portions of your work here to overview these stages?

Hi Jennifer,

Glad you found the post useful! Yes, we are happy for you to quote parts of this work, provided you could please include a citation and link to the original post in your course.

– Nicole | Community Manager

Thank you for sharing this. At the age of 60 now, I finally have some answers to how my life has unfolded and the toll my childhood took on me.

According to Erikson, if someone experiences trauma during a specific stage and does not resolve the conflict, is there hope of overcoming that later in life?

Hi Harriet,

I’m not sure whether Erikson himself explored the topic and impact of trauma and how it may affect psychosocial development, but I do know that other scholars have explored this topic (see Ogle et al., 2013 ). The ongoing effects of trauma can absolutely be addressed (to overcome or minimize them) at stages later than that in which the trauma occurred, however. We see this in the recovery of trauma survivors who have waited many years to seek professional support for their trauma.

Hope this helps!

I train foster & adoptive parents/caregivers and foster & adoptive social workers in Ohio. May I please have your permission to download this article and use it as a handout for a training I do about trauma-informed caregiving?

Yes, feel free to share this article with your clients! We don’t have a ‘download’ button, but feel free to print the page to use as a handout. 🙂

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Erikson's Stages of Development

A Closer Look at the Eight Psychosocial Stages

• Overview of Erikson's Stages of Development
• Support and Criticism

Take the Pop Quiz

• Next in Psychosocial Development Guide Trust vs. Mistrust: Psychosocial Stage 1

Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular and influential theories of development. While his theory was impacted by psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud's work , Erikson's theory centered on psychosocial development rather than psychosexual development .

The stages that make up his theory are as follows:

• Stage 1 : Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy from birth to 18 months)
• Stage 2 : Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddler years from 18 months to three years)
• Stage 3 : Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool years from three to five)
• Stage 4 : Industry vs. Inferiority (Middle school years from six to 11)
• Stage 5 : Identity vs. Confusion (Teen years from 12 to 18)
• Stage 6 : Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adult years from 18 to 40)
• Stage 7 : Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle age from 40 to 65)
• Stage 8 : Integrity vs. Despair (Older adulthood from 65 to death)

Let's take a closer look at the background and different stages that make up Erikson's psychosocial theory.

Test Your Knowledge

At the end of this article, take a fast and free pop quiz to see how much you know about Erikson's stages of development.

Overview of Erikson's Stages of Development

So what exactly did Erikson's theory of psychosocial development entail? Much like Sigmund Freud , Erikson believed that personality developed in a series of stages.

Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual stages, however, Erikson's theory described the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan. Erikson was interested in how social interaction and relationships played a role in the development and growth of human beings.

Erikson's theory was based on what is known as the epigenetic principle . This principle suggests that people grow in a sequence that occurs over time and in the context of a larger community.

Click Play to Learn More About Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

This video has been medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD .

Conflict During Each Stage

Each stage in Erikson's theory builds on the preceding stages and paves the way for following periods of development. In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in development.  

In Erikson's view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. During these times, the potential for personal growth is high but so is the potential for failure.

If people successfully deal with the conflict, they emerge from the stage with psychological strengths that will serve them well for the rest of their lives. If they fail to deal effectively with these conflicts, they may not develop the essential skills needed for a strong sense of self.

Mastery Leads to Ego Strength

Erikson also believed that a sense of competence motivates behaviors and actions. Each stage in Erikson's theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life.

If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which is sometimes referred to as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy in that aspect of development.

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust

The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and 1 year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life. Because an infant is utterly dependent, developing trust is based on the dependability and quality of the child's caregivers.

At this point in development, the child is utterly dependent upon adult caregivers for everything they need to survive including food, love, warmth, safety, and nurturing. If a caregiver fails to provide adequate care and love, the child will come to feel that they cannot trust or depend upon the adults in their life.

If a child successfully develops trust, the child will feel safe and secure in the world.   Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children under their care. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.

During the first stage of psychosocial development, children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust.

No child is going to develop a sense of 100% trust or 100% doubt. Erikson believed that successful development was all about striking a balance between the two opposing sides. When this happens, children acquire hope, which Erikson described as an openness to experience tempered by some wariness that danger may be present.

Subsequent work by researchers including John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth demonstrated the importance of trust in forming healthy attachments during childhood and adulthood.

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control.

The Role of Independence

At this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little independence. They are starting to perform basic actions on their own and making simple decisions about what they prefer. By allowing kids to make choices and gain control, parents and caregivers can help children develop a sense of autonomy.  

Potty Training

The essential theme of this stage is that children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Potty training plays an important role in helping children develop this sense of autonomy.

Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However, Erikson's reasoning was quite different than that of Freud's. Erikson believed that learning to control one's bodily functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence. Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing selection.

Children who struggle and who are shamed for their accidents may be left without a sense of personal control. Success during this stage of psychosocial development leads to feelings of autonomy; failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.

Finding Balance

Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt. Erikson believed that achieving a balance between autonomy and shame and doubt would lead to will, which is the belief that children can act with intention, within reason and limits.

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt

The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during the preschool years. At this point in psychosocial development, children begin to assert their power and control over the world through directing play and other social interactions.

Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.

The major theme of the third stage of psychosocial development is that children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt.

When an ideal balance of individual initiative and a willingness to work with others is achieved, the ego quality known as   purpose emerges.

Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority

The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from approximately ages 5 to 11. Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities.

Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.

Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be successful.

Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial development leads to the strength known as competence, in which children develop a belief in their abilities to handle the tasks set before them.

Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion

The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often turbulent teenage years. This stage plays an essential role in developing a sense of personal identity which will continue to influence behavior and development for the rest of a person's life. Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self.

During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of self.   Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and feelings of independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will feel insecure and confused about themselves and the future.

What Is Identity?

When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs, ideals, and values that help shape and guide a person's behavior. Completing this stage successfully leads to fidelity, which Erikson described as an ability to live by society's standards and expectations.

While Erikson believed that each stage of psychosocial development was important, he placed a particular emphasis on the development of ego identity. Ego identity is the  conscious  sense of self that we develop through social interaction and becomes a central focus during the identity versus confusion stage of psychosocial development.

According to Erikson, our ego identity constantly changes due to new experiences and information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. As we have new experiences, we also take on challenges that can help or hinder the development of identity.

Why Identity Is Important

Our personal identity gives each of us an integrated and cohesive sense of self that endures through our lives. Our sense of personal identity is shaped by our experiences and interactions with others, and it is this identity that helps guide our actions, beliefs, and behaviors as we age.

Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation

Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation. This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships.  

Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other people. Those who are successful at this step will form relationships that are enduring and secure.

Building On Earlier Stages

Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a strong  sense of personal identity  was important for developing intimate relationships. Studies have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships and are more likely to struggler with emotional isolation,  loneliness , and depression.

Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is marked by the ability to form lasting, meaningful relationships with other people.

Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation

Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.

During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family. Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being active in their home and community.   Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.

Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. Being proud of your accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults, and developing a sense of unity with your life partner are important accomplishments of this stage.

Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair

The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life.   At this point in development, people look back on the events of their lives and determine if they are happy with the life that they lived or if they regret the things they did or didn't do.

Erikson's theory differed from many others because it addressed development throughout the entire lifespan, including old age. Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.

At this stage, people reflect back on the events of their lives and take stock. Those who look back on a life they feel was well-lived will feel satisfied and ready to face the end of their lives with a sense of peace. Those who look back and only feel regret will instead feel fearful that their lives will end without accomplishing the things they feel they should have.​

Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been wasted and may experience many regrets. The person will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.

Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain   wisdom, even when confronting death.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Erikson's Theory

Erikson's theory also has its limitations and attracts valid criticisms. What kinds of experiences are necessary to successfully complete each stage? How does a person move from one stage to the next?

One major weakness of psychosocial theory is that the exact mechanisms for resolving conflicts and moving from one stage to the next are not well described or developed. The theory fails to detail exactly what type of experiences are necessary at each stage in order to successfully resolve the conflicts and move to the next stage.

One of the strengths of psychosocial theory is that it provides a broad framework from which to view development throughout the entire lifespan. It also allows us to emphasize the social nature of human beings and the important influence that social relationships have on development.

Researchers have found evidence supporting Erikson's ideas about identity and have further identified different sub-stages of identity formation.   Some research also suggests that people who form strong personal identities during adolescence are better capable of forming intimate relationships during early adulthood. Other research suggests, however, that identity formation and development continues well into adulthood.  

Why Was Erikson's Theory Important?

The theory was significant because it addressed development throughout a person's life, not just during childhood. It also stressed the importance of social relationships in shaping personality and growth at each point in development.

See how much you've learned (or maybe already knew!) about Erik Erikson's stages of development with this quick, free pop quiz.

It is important to remember that the psychosocial stages are just one theory of personality development . Some research may support certain aspects of this theoretical framework, but that does not mean that every aspect of the theory is supported by evidence. The theory can, however, be a helpful way to think about some of the different conflicts and challenges that people may face as they go through life.

It is also easy to look at each stage of Erikson's theory and consider how it can apply to your life. Learning about each stage can provide insight into what you might face as you age. It can also help you reflect on things that may have happened in the past and help you see ways you might be able to improve your coping skills to better deal with today's challenges.

Vogel-Scibilia SE, McNulty KC, Baxter B, Miller S, Dine M, Frese FJ. The recovery process utilizing Erikson's stages of human development . Community Ment Health J . 2009;45(6):405-14. doi:10.1007/s10597-009-9189-4

Malone JC, Liu SR, Vaillant GE, Rentz DM, Waldinger RJ. Midlife Eriksonian psychosocial development: Setting the stage for late-life cognitive and emotional health . Dev Psychol . 2016;52(3):496-508. doi:10.1037/a0039875

Orenstein GA, Lewis L. Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing.

Meeus W, van de Schoot R, Keijsers L, Branje S. Identity statuses as developmental trajectories: A five-wave longitudinal study in early-to-middle and middle-to-late adolescents .  J Youth Adolesc . 2012;41(8):1008-1021. doi:10.1007/s10964-011-9730-y

Fadjukoff P, Pulkkinen L, Kokko K. Identity formation in adulthood: A longitudinal study from age 27 to 50 .  Identity (Mahwah, N J) . 2016;16(1):8-23. doi:10.1080/15283488.2015.1121820

Carver, CS & Scheir, MF.  Perspectives on Personality . Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon; 2011.

• Erikson, E.H. Childhood and Society . (2nd ed.). New York: Norton; 1993.
• Erikson, EH & Erikson, JM. The Life Cycle Completed. New York: Norton; 1998.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Psychosocial Development Theory (Erikson 8 Stages) Explained

Viktoriya Sus (MA)

Viktoriya Sus is an academic writer specializing mainly in economics and business from Ukraine. She holds a Master’s degree in International Business from Lviv National University and has more than 6 years of experience writing for different clients. Viktoriya is passionate about researching the latest trends in economics and business. However, she also loves to explore different topics such as psychology, philosophy, and more.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Chris Drew (PhD)

This article was peer-reviewed and edited by Chris Drew (PhD). The review process on Helpful Professor involves having a PhD level expert fact check, edit, and contribute to articles. Reviewers ensure all content reflects expert academic consensus and is backed up with reference to academic studies. Dr. Drew has published over 20 academic articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education and holds a PhD in Education from ACU.

The theory of psychosocial development was invented by the famous American psychologist Erik Erikson and includes eight stages of personality development.

At each stage, a person faces a certain conflict and, as a result, develops a particular quality or skill.

According to Erikson, all people go through eight crises or conflicts in their development. Psychosocial adaptation achieved by a person at each stage of development can change their character at a later age, sometimes radically.

For example, children who were deprived of love and warmth in childhood can become normal adults if they are given additional attention at later stages.

However, the nature of psychosocial adaptation to conflicts plays an important role in developing a specific person.

The resolution of these conflicts is cumulative, and the way a person adapts to life at each stage of development affects how they cope with the next conflict.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory – Definition

Erik Erikson’s psychosocial development theory is a framework that explains how individuals develop and grow throughout their lifespan.

According to Erikson, human development is a process in distinct discontinuous stages , each characterized by a particular psychosocial crisis or challenge (Orenstein & Lewis, 2021).

In the book  Childhood and Society , Erikson (1963) divided a person’s life into eight separate stages of psychosocial development of the “ego.” These stages are the result of an epigenetically unfolded personality blueprint that is passed down genetically.

According to Moore and Rosenthal (2007),

“Erikson postulates that psychological development proceeds through a series of stages across the life span, each stage characterized by a major crisis or conflict to be worked through and resolved” (p. 33).

The epigenetic concept of development is based on the idea that each life cycle stage occurs at a specific time (“critical period”) and that a full-fledged personality is formed only by successively passing through all stages in its development.

In addition, each psychosocial stage is accompanied by a crisis – a turning point in an individual’s life, which occurs due to reaching a certain level of psychological maturity and social requirements presented to the individual at this stage (Erikson, 1963).

So, in simple terms, Erikson’s psychosocial development theory is a framework for understanding how individuals grow and develop throughout their life span, each stage of which is characterized by a particular psychosocial challenge or crisis. 

It emphasizes the importance of successfully resolving these conflicts to move on to the next stage and ultimately achieve a full-fledged personality. 

Stages of Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory

Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development outlines eight stages that individuals go through from birth to old age.

Each stage represents a unique psychological challenge or crisis that must be resolved to achieve healthy development (Erikson, 1963). 

1. Trust vs. Mistrust

Age Range: Infancy, 0-1 year Key Challenge: Developing trust for caregivers Core Question: “Can I trust the people around me?”

During this stage, infants learn to trust or mistrust their caregivers based on the consistency and reliability of their care.

Responsive caregiving,  positive reinforcement , a safe environment, positive experiences, and supportive parents can help a child succeed in the trust vs. mistrust stage of development (Erikson, 1963).

The successful development of trust during the infancy stage can have a more positive outlook in adult life, can help develop self-esteem , and build healthy relations.

Without the proper encouragement and development, a child can become highly distrustful due to unstable caregiving, negligence, mistreatment, separation issues, or even excessive protection (Erikson, 1963).

The failure to develop trust during infancy can have significant consequences on a child’s psychological and emotional development, leading to issues such as anxiety, depression, and even aggression. 

Read our full Guide: Erikson’s Trust vs Mistrust Stage (With 10 Examples)

2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Age Range: Toddlerhood, 1-3 years Key Challenge: Seeking autonomy and discovery Core Question: “Can I do things myself, or am I reliant on the help of others?”

As toddlers enter this stage, they start to yearn for more autonomy and discover the world around them.

Parents’ encouragement, support, and freedom to make choices are critical factors in helping children successfully transition through the autonomy vs shame and doubt stage (Lewis & Abell, 2017).

 The successful development of autonomy in children helps them increase confidence, gain independence , and have better relationships with others at a small age and in adult life (Slee et al., 2012).

A child can become less autonomous and develop feelings of shame and doubt if they are not allowed to make decisions on their own, have overly controlling parents, have stressful events, or even lack of support (Erikson, 1963).

The inability to develop autonomy can lead to a child’s lack of confidence and poor social skills or even create a negative self-image.

Read our full Guide: Erikson’s Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt Stage (With 10 Examples)

3. Initiative vs. Guilt

Age Range: Preschool, 3-6 years Key Challenge: Developing initiative Core Question: “Am I good or bad?”

Children begin to develop a sense of purpose and initiative during this stage. They begin to tap into their sense of power and control by taking charge during playtime and other social interactions

A supportive environment, encouragement of independence, and support for creativity are all critical factors for a child to succeed at the initiative vs. guilt stage (Erikson, 1963). 

When children develop initiative, they can increase their self-esteem, improve problem-solving skills , gain greater independence, better academic performance, and even improve physical health. 

Criticism and punishment, lack of opportunities and encouragement, overprotective parenting, fear of failure, and traumas are among the factors that can cause children to fail at the initiative vs. guilt stage (Erikson, 1963).

When parents fail to develop their child’s initiative, the consequences can range from negative to serious. These include a lack of self-confidence and independence, poor academic performance, anxiety, and depression. 

Read our full Guide: Erikson’s Initiative vs Guilt Stage (With 10 Examples)

4. Industry vs. Inferiority

Age Range: Elementary School, 6-12 years Key Challenge: Developing Industriousness Core Question: “How can I be good?”

In this stage, children develop a sense of competence and mastery in academic and social skills.

A supportive environment, encouragement of creativity , recognition of effort, and freedom to explore interests are all critical factors for a child to succeed at the industry vs. inferiority stage (Erikson, 1963).

By fostering an attitude of hard work and ambition, adults can give kids the tools to embrace confidence and resilience. With these skills, children will be better prepared to take on any challenge, paving their path to success.

Lack of a supportive environment, poor academic performance, bullying, and limited exposure to new activities can all be contributing factors for children not succeeding in the industry vs. inferiority stage (Erikson, 1963).

Failing to establish the capabilities and frame of mind required for success in the industry versus the inferiority stage can lead a child to experience serious issues, including decreased self-confidence, social troubles, and academic difficulties.

Read our full Guide: Erikson’s Industry vs Inferiority Stage (With 10 Examples)

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion

Age Range: Adolescence, 12-18 years Key Challenge: Developing a sense of personal identity Core Question: “Who am I?”

During this stage, adolescents form their identity and sense of self by exploring and ‘trying on’ different identity roles.

Positive role models, encouragement to be an independent, safe and supportive environment, open communication, and freedom to express themselves are important factors that can help children to succeed at the identity vs role confusion stage (Erikson, 1963).

The successful development of identity during the identity vs role confusion stage can help improve self-esteem, build stronger interpersonal relationships, improve physical health, increase creativity, and even improve academic performance.

Lack of support, negative role models, traumas, social pressure, or mental health problems could all contribute to an inability to successfully transition into adulthood (Erikson, 1963).

Without developing a robust sense of identity, one may experience a loss of direction and purpose in life, find it hard to build meaningful connections with others, or simply be unable to decide on the right career path.

Read our full Guide: Erikson’s Identity vs Role Confusion (With 10 Examples)

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation

Age Range: Young Adulthood, 18-40 years Key Challenge: Developing caring intimate relationships Core Question: “Will I be loved, or will I be alone?”

Individuals strive to form meaningful connections and intimacy with others at this stage. This can be romantic relationships, friendships, and professional partnerships.

 During the intimacy vs isolation stage of life, it is crucial to cultivate supportive relationships and possess attributes such as emotional intelligence , empathy, a willingness to compromise, and trust for someone to succeed (Erikson, 1963).

Establishing meaningful connections has a host of positive implications for one’s emotional and physical well-being, personal growth, and overall life satisfaction. Intimacy paves the way to lead an enriched life.

Lack of trust, difficulty communicating, social isolation, traumas, and some other personal issues can hinder the development of intimacy in relationships (Erikson, 1963).

If neglected, the intimacy vs isolation stage can result in loneliness and trouble forming meaningful relationships. Furthermore, it can lead to a fear of rejection and a detrimental effect on one’s physical health. 

Read our full Guide: Erikson’s Intimacy vs Isolation (With 10 Examples)

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation

Age Range: Middle Adulthood, 40-65 years Key Challenge: Giving back to the community Core Question: “How can I contribute to the world?”

At this phase of life, people strive to give back to their community and leave a lasting impression on future generations.

Positive relationships, emotional stability, a sense of accomplishment, self-reflection, and financial security are several factors that can contribute to an individual’s success at the generativity versus stagnation stage (Erikson, 1963).

The success of developing generativity can have positive consequences for both the individual and society as a whole – from creating fulfillment in life and improving health to making the world better.

People’s self-centeredness, lack of personal growth and meaningful relationships, fear of failure, and even lack of resources significantly impact their ability to develop generativity, thus, leading to stagnation (Erikson, 1963).

The failure to develop generativity during the middle adulthood stage can lead to feelings of stagnation and a lack of fulfillment in life. Such people may experience a sense of purposelessness and feel disconnected from the world around them.

Read our full Guide: Erikson’s Generativity vs Stagnation (With 10 Examples)

8. Integrity vs. Despair

Age Range: Late Adulthood, 65+ years Key Challenge: Sense of fulfillment Core Question: “Did I live a meaningful life?”

During this stage, individuals reflect on their life choices and must come to terms with the purpose of it all.

Healthy relationships, meaningful work, forgiveness, contributions to society, and a positive attitude can all help individuals succeed in the integrity vs despair stage (Erikson, 1963).

The success of developing integrity has several positive consequences for individuals, such as a sense of accomplishment, increased self-awareness , better mental health, a greater sense of purpose, and enhanced relationships.

Lack of meaningful relationships and accomplishment, illness or disability, isolation, mental health issues, and difficulty with self-awareness can all contribute to an individual’s failure in the integrity vs despair stage (Erikson, 1963).

The consequences of failing to develop integrity during the later stages of life can result in feelings of despair, regret, and dissatisfaction, which can lead to a sense of hopelessness and a negative outlook on life. 

Read our full Guide: Erikson’s Integrity vs Despair (With 10 Examples)

Criticisms of Psychosocial Development Theory

While Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory has been widely influential in the field of psychology, it has also received its fair share of criticism related to its lack of empirical evidence and theoretical rigor. 

• Subjectivity : One major criticism of Erikson’s theory is that it is based on his own experiences and observations, which may not apply to all individuals. 
• Western bias: Erikson’s theory emphasizes the importance of individual identity development in Western cultures. However, it may be less relevant in collectivist cultures where identity is more closely tied to the group.
• Rigidity of stages: Another criticism is that the stages in Erikson’s theory are too rigid and need to consider individual differences or variations in development. While Erikson proposed specific age ranges for each stage, individuals may progress through the stages at different rates or not experience them in the same order.
• Lack of clarity: There needs to be more clarity regarding what form of experiences are necessary to overcome difficulties and proceed onward with development successfully.

Psychosocial vs Psychoanalytic Theory

Psychosocial theory is inspired by Freud’s psychoanalytic theory. However, Erikson’s approach takes on a more rational and positive framing.

Whereas Freud focuses on the subconscious mind and sexual desire, Erikson focuses on our social lives. His goal is to explore how people develop a productive sense of self rather than being overly focused on our internal demons.

Here is a summary of the differences between the two theories:

Origins of the Psychosocial Development Theory

Erik Erikson’s theor y is centered around the growth of self-identity, explored them in his influential 1968 book  Identity: Youth and Crisis . Likely, personal experiences played a significant role when formulating psychosocial development theory.

Erik Erikson (Homberger), born of an unknown Danish father and a Jewish mother, was subjected to taunts from his peers during his youth due to the juxtaposition of his Nordic appearance with a Jewish upbringing (Carley, 2015). 

As he roamed in search of purpose, Erik pursued a dream to become an artist. But the onset of World War II forced Erikson and his wife to relocate multiple times until ultimately settling in Boston. 

During his travels, he changed his name to reflect the constant transformation of identity that he was experiencing himself – an idea that is ubiquitously found throughout all his theories on personal development.

Erikson had many anthropology associates , such as Ruth Benedict, Gregory Bateson, and Margaret Mead. Yet none impacted him as much as Sigmund Freud did with his ideas and theories.

Taking inspiration from Freud’s work, Erikson has expanded upon the latter’s theories and crafted a unique set of his own (Carley, 2015).

Whereas Sigmund Freud proposed five stages in human development that culminate in adolescence, Erik Erikson formulated eight foundational phases.

Freud believed that a person’s childhood is the fundamental cornerstone of their identity, while Erikson argued that personal development continues to progress and evolve over one’s lifetime. This growth even can be seen in late adulthood.

Before his first publication of Childhood and Society , Erikson immersed himself amongst Native American tribes (Carley, 2015).

There, he discovered dream quests – a hunt for boys reaching adulthood – and saw how their traditional identities were being dissolved by modern white practices.These observations also influenced Erikson’s view of psychosocial development theory.

He felt that the identity crisis and dissonance Native American boys experienced could be found in young people of all societies – a notion that is highly celebrated today.

Related Theory: The Biopsychosocial Theory

According to Erik Erikson’s theory of personality development, personality development continues throughout life, where one stage is replaced by another in the event of a successful resolution of internal contradictions.

The eight stages of psychosocial development involve identity formation, the ability to form intimate relationships, generativity, and ego integrity. They also provide an understanding of how experiences throughout life can affect development.

Erik Erikson was a follower of Freud. He expanded the psychoanalytic theory and went beyond it because he began to consider the child’s development in a wider system of social relations.

Today, Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development theory is a major contribution to the field of psychology that has been widely influential.

However, it has also generated much criticism due to its lack of empirical evidence and theoretical rigor.

Carley, S. G. (2015).  Erik Erikson: Post-Freudian theory . Createspace.

Erikson, E. H. (1963).  Childhood and society . Vintage Digital.

Erikson, E. H. (1968).  Identity: Youth and crisis . W.W. Norton & Co.

Moore, S., & Rosenthal, D. (2007).  Sexuality in adolescence: Current trends . Routledge.

Orenstein, G. A., & Lewis, L. (2021).  Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development . PubMed; StatPearls Publishing. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK556096/

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Online MSW Programs / Social Work / 6 Important Theories in Social Work / Introduction to Psychosocial Development Theory

Introduction to Psychosocial Development Theory in Social Work

If you are seeking your  bachelor’s degree in social work  (BSW) or  master’s degree in social work  (MSW), your coursework has likely included the discussion of theories and their importance to the  field of social work . They direct how social workers view and approach individual clients, groups, communities and society.

Theories help predict, evaluate and interpret situations and behaviors and provide a basis for how a social worker needs to react and intervene with clients who have certain backgrounds, issues or goals. Social workers typically know conventional and researched  social work theories  that are rooted in social work values and draw continuously upon these theories.

This introduction addresses many facets of  Erik Erikson’s eight-stage psychosocial development theory , including an overview of the stages, assumptions, applications, and strengths and weaknesses. Included is a list of books and online resources should you wish to learn more about this topic.

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What is Psychosocial Development Theory?

Psychosocial development theory is an expansion of Sigmund Freud’s original five stages of development. Erikson, a 20th-century psychologist and psychoanalyst, formulated the eight-stage life cycle theory in 1959 on the supposition that the environment plays a critical role in self-awareness, adjustment, human development and identity.

Erik Erikson’s 8 stages of psychosocial development

Erikson asserts in his psychosocial theory that ego identity is reached by facing goals and challenges throughout eight stages of development over the entire life cycle. Each of the psychosocial stages is distinguished by two opposing emotional forces, known as contrary dispositions, that result in a crisis that needs to be resolved. Each crisis must be mastered as swiftly as possible, otherwise, a person’s psychology is in jeopardy. However, a successful resolution of the conflict results in a healthy personality and the attainment of a basic virtue. The ego uses these character strengths to resolve subsequent crises.

1. Trust vs. Mistrust

The first stage of Erikson’s psychosocial development starts at birth and continues to approximately 18 months of age. The principal task is trust versus mistrust. Infants rely solely upon their caregivers; thus, if caregivers are responsive and sensitive to their infant’s needs, it helps the infant develop a sense of trust. Apathetic caregivers who do not meet their baby’s needs may cause the baby to develop feelings of anxiety, fear and mistrust and see the world as unpredictable. Basic virtue developed: hope.

2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

The second stage occurs between the ages of 1½ and 3 years. If a child is allowed to develop at their own pace during this stage, they can acquire self-reliance and self-confidence. However, if parents are inconsistent, overcritical, or overprotective, the child may doubt their ability to control themselves and their world. Basic virtue developed: will.

3. Initiative vs. Guilt

The third of Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development arises during the preschool stage, 3-5 years of age. A child can develop initiative through social interactions, and by planning and commencing in play and other activities. If the child’s pursuits fail or are criticized, feelings of self-doubt and guilt may arise. Basic virtue developed: purpose.

4. Industry vs. Inferiority

The fourth stage occurs from ages 5 to 12 years. During this period, a child begins to compare themselves with peers. The child learns to be productive and to accept the evaluation of his or her efforts, and in turn, can develop a sense of accomplishment and pride in their academic work, sports, social activities and home life. If a child feels they do not measure up, feelings of inferiority or incompetence may be established. Basic virtue developed: competency.

5. Identity vs. Role Confusion

The fifth stage of psychosocial development is marked by an adolescent identity crisis. Between the ages of 12-18, an individual develops a sense of self by experimenting with a variety of social roles. An adolescent who is successful at forming a cohesive, positive identity will have a strong sense of identity, whereas adolescents who do not search for an identity or are pressured into an identity may experience role confusion and develop a weak sense of self. Basic virtue developed: fidelity.

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation

The sixth stage extends from late adolescence to early middle age, 18 to 40. A strong sense of self must be developed in adolescence in order to create intimate relationships with others during this stage. Adults who lack a positive self-concept may experience emotional isolation or loneliness.

To avoid feeling isolated or alone, individuals must learn to not lose themselves when sharing or caring for others. Gaining a strong self-identity allows an individual to achieve true intimacy, whereas identity diffusion can be a challenge. Basic virtue developed: love.

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation

Also called generativity versus self-absorption, the seventh stage in Erikson’s psychosocial development theory occurs during the ages of 40-65. During middle adulthood, individuals have a positive goal of generativity. In most cases, this results in procreation, along with the fulfillment of parental and social responsibilities. This is in strict contrast to interest in the self or self-absorption. Basic virtue developed: care.

8. Integrity vs. Despair

The final stage of psychosocial development theory during old age (65+) is a period when a person reflects on life. One can either develop a sense of satisfaction with their life and approach death with peace or develop a sense of despair over missed opportunities and wasted time, leaving the individual to approach death with dread. Basic virtue developed: wisdom.

Assumptions of psychosocial development theory

Although Erikson built his psychosocial development theory upon many years of field research and study, the theory maintains a foundation in a few assumptions.

• Social expectations in each stage are the same across all cultures.
• Parental influence exists throughout the stages of childhood and adolescence.
• Humans develop similarly across the eight stages.

Applications of psychosocial development theory

The psychosocial development theory holds that individuals are shaped by and react to their environment. For this reason, the theory may prove to be a useful tool in many fields, including social work.

Psychosocial development theory can be utilized in the analysis of a client’s symptomatic behavior in relation to past traumatic experiences and conflicts with current developmental tasks.

Social workers can use Erikson’s “maturation timetable” to identify individual challenges and to determine what support and services would be best for addressing the challenges.

Strengths and weaknesses of psychosocial development theory

As with all theories, the  psychosocial development theory has strengths and weaknesses .

• A strength of this Erikson theory is its ability to connect important psychosocial development across a person’s lifespan. This approach provides a pragmatic perspective on personality development.
• However, a major weakness of Erikson’s psychosocial development theory is that Erikson himself concedes the theory falls short of explaining how and why development occurs.
• Another strength of psychosocial development theory is that it demonstrates middle and late adulthood are active and significant periods of personal growth, while other theories deem both stages irrelevant.
• Erikson does not clarify how the outcome of one psychosocial stage influences one’s personality in a later stage.
• Adding to the theory’s strengths is that people can relate to the various stages through their own experiences.
• The theory does not provide a universal method for crisis resolution.
• Unlike Freud’s psychoanalysis approach, that psychosocial development theory was built upon, Erikson offers a wider and more comprehensive view of humanity.
• The theory is dated, as it does not address the influence of single-parent households on a child.

How Does Psychosocial Development Theory Apply to Social Work?

Erikson’s theory postulates that people advance through the stages of development based on how they adjust to social crises throughout their lives. These social crises instruct how individuals react to the surrounding world. This provides social work professionals with a group of signals that help determine how successfully clients handle crises and progress along with a “maturation timetable.”

The eight stages in Erikson’s psychosocial development theory provide a stepping-stone for movement toward proper growth that social workers can apply to distinguish individual difficulties and, in turn, provide the appropriate support and services for tackling these challenges.

Criticism of Psychosocial Development Theory

While empirical research supports Erikson’s psychosocial development theory, that a positive resolution of crises throughout the stages correlates with self-worth,  critics suggest the theory has several shortcomings .

• Erikson lacks academic credentials.
• The theory fails to detail what type of experiences are necessary to resolve the conflicts in each stage.
• Erikson employed an ambiguous style of writing and used a variety of terms such as identity development, identity consolidation and identity foreclosure to define identity without offering an explanation for their use. This practice may leave readers or followers confused.
• Psychosocial development theory focused on crises and asserted the completion of one crisis was necessary for the next crisis in development.
• Social explanations used may not translate to other cultures besides the U.S. middle-class.
• Erikson does not accurately address the experience of women, as evidenced in the Generativity vs. Stagnation stage. Women are more likely to move away from child-bearing and refocus on the self.

Summary and Resources for Further Learning

Although Erikson’s psychosocial developmental theory establishes a maturation timeline that has empirical support and is relatable to many, the theory falls short as a one-size-fits-all social work tool. Rather, the theory is best suited as an addition to other relevant social work theories and practices.

You may find the following related books and online resources useful throughout your  social work education  and  career.

“Identity and the Life Cycle”  by Erik H. Erikson : This book is a collection of three papers, “Ego Development and Historical Change,” “Growth and Crises of the Health Personality,” and “The Problem of Ego Identity” that introduce the reader to Erikson’s theories.

“Childhood and Society” by Eric Erikson : The author discusses the relationships between childhood experience and cultural attainment, analyzing the young and the mature, the modern, and the antiquated elements in human motivation.

“Life Cycle Completed” by Eric Erikson : Using countless examples from his case studies, Erikson continues the discussion on psychosocial development. As an evolutionary psychologist, the author offers insights and new discoveries of growth potential for older adults.

“Casework: A Psychosocial Therapy” by Mary Woods and Florence Hollis : An introduction to psychosocial therapy that provides a balanced focus on people, their environment, and the ways in which people interact with their environment. Discussion includes the influence of ethnicity, diversity in the social work practice, changes in family life roles, changes in ideas, and practice approaches.

“Psychosocial and Relationship-Based Practice” by Claudia Megele : This book offers a critical multidisciplinary analysis of case studies of social work interventions from a psychosocial and relationship-based perspective.

“The Oxford Handbook of Identity Development” by Kate C. McLean (Editor), Moin Syed (Editor) : This book signifies a turning point in the field of identity development research. Researchers debate, extend and apply Erikson’s theory to contemporary problems and empirical issues. The result is a comprehensive and state-of-the-art examination of identity development that pushes the field in provocative new directions.

Online Resources

AdolescentHealth.org:  The  Society for Adolescent Health and Medicine (SAHM)  offers a host of resources dedicated to the physical and psychosocial development of adolescents and young adults.

Nami.org:  The  National Alliance on Mental Illness  provides information on psychosocial treatments, including psychosocial rehabilitation, assertive community treatment and vocational rehabilitation.

HHS.gov:  The  U.S. Department of Health and Human Services  has a collection of resources for youth-serving professionals, including a  child development resource guide   for parents and providers.

Aap.org:  A  clinical report from the American Academy of Pediatrics  that provides guidance on how to facilitate and coordinate care between specialists, schools, behavioral health providers and social services for children and youth with special care needs and their families.

CHADD.org:  The site for  Children and Adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder  (CHADD) offers a fact sheet on psychosocial treatment, along with information on parent training and education, and school and social skills interventions.

ScienceDirect.com:   Science Direct  provides sample book chapters and research articles on psychosocial development theory.

Last updated: February 2022

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Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory

Introduction, erikson’s development theory.

Erikson is one of the prominent philosophers who impacted psychology significantly. Having studied psychoanalysis, Erikson focused on understanding the various developmental and psychosexual stages in human beings (Syed & Fish, 2018). His childhood played a significant role in influencing his professional life. Having been raised by a stepfather, Erikson lacked enough guidance during his teenagehood, making him undergo many challenges. His theory of Psychosocial Development is often regarded as an extension of Sigmund’s five stages of development (Syed & Fish, 2018). Erikson’s theory contains eight development stages that influence a person’s surroundings. According to this theory, one’s environment tends to influence adjustment, identity, and self-awareness (Syed & Fish, 2018). The eight stages of Erikson’s theory include infancy, early childhood, preschool, school, adolescence, early adulthood, middle age, and old age.

Specific psychosocial crises at each level characterize the eight developmental stages of Erikson’s psychosocial theory. Successful completion of the crisis at each stage leads to a positive outcome and lays a foundation for succeeding in the next psychosocial crisis (Orenstein & Lewis, 2021). When one completes the stages, they acquire particular personality and virtues at each stage, giving them an identity. Being unable to solve the psychosocial crisis at a particular stage may reduce the ability to solve the successive stages. In such an instance, one is likely to develop an undesirable personality. However, Erikson argues that a person can successfully resolve their personality if put in a conducive environment that enables them to analyze and effectively solve the psychosocial crisis.

In the infancy stage, the psychosocial crisis that the child is faced with is trust vs. mistrust. Successful completion of this stage results in the acquisition of the virtue of hope (Orenstein & Lewis, 2021). If the child receives adequate care and love, they will develop basic trust in their caregiver. However, if the care is inconsistent and insufficient, the child is likely to develop mistrust and anxiety. This sense of trust is likely to affect their future relationships depending on how others treat them. A child who develops trust is often hopeful of the support of people in their lives. However, if they develop mistrust, they will often have fear and insecurities regarding the people around them. The child experiences autonomy vs. shame and doubt crisis in the early childhood stage. This crisis is often influenced by the need to be independent and develop a sense of personal control (Orenstein & Lewis, 2021). Successful completion of this crisis enables the child to develop the virtue of will. Therefore the child gains the confidence to explore and survive in their environment.

At the preschool stage, the child experiences the crisis of initiative vs. guilt. The child spends most of the time interacting with others and initiating activities relating to their interpersonal skills (Orenstein & Lewis, 2021). At this level, the child feels secure interacting with others and exploring their environment to discover their abilities. However, when the child is criticized for their initiatives, they tend to develop guilt for their choices, which is likely to limit their interaction. Completing this level leads to the acquisition of the virtue of purpose. At the school age, the psychosocial crisis involves industry vs. inferiority (Orenstein & Lewis, 2021). Teachers play a significant role in shaping the child’s behavior at this level. They become industrious if the child is supported in their initiatives and interpersonal skills. However, when they are discouraged, they become inferior (Orenstein & Lewis, 2021). The virtue acquired at this level is competence which gives the child the confidence to engage in more activities.

Identity vs. role confusion is the psychosocial crisis at the adolescence stage. During this stage, the person becomes more independent and aware of their future. This stage enables one to identify their position in society as an adult. Most adolescents try to fit into society by copying what their peers are doing. People in this stage tend to feel uncomfortable about their body appearance but progressively adapt to changes. Successful completion of this level leads to the acquisition of the virtue of fidelity (Orenstein & Lewis, 2021). This level may lead to an identity crisis where the person does not know their life purpose and starts experimenting with various lifestyles. In the early adulthood stage, a person faces the psychosocial crisis of intimacy vs. isolation (Orenstein & Lewis, 2021). The person is faced with the need to establish long-term relationships. Commitment and care are among the leading values that guide one in their relationships. When one completes this stage, they develop the virtue of love.

The seventh stage of development of Erikson’s theory is the middle adulthood stage, characterized by the psychosocial crisis of generativity versus stagnation. At this stage, the person becomes more productive and focuses on giving back to society by becoming more involved in matters (Orenstein & Lewis, 2021). The virtue acquired at this stage is caring for the people in one’s life. However, when one fails to make accomplishments at this stage, they become unproductive and stagnant. Lastly, in the old age stage, one faces the crisis of ego integrity vs. despair (Orenstein & Lewis, 2021). When reflecting on their lives with a sense of pride and happiness having successfully accomplished their goals, they develop integrity. On the contrary, when one fails to achieve their goals in life, they tend to reflect on their lives with regret and hence develop despair. Successful completion of this stage leads to the development of the virtue of wisdom.

My interviewee was named John, a 21-year-old white male in his early adulthood. Based on his interview responses regarding his adolescence, Erikson’s psychosocial crisis of the adolescent stage, identity versus role confusion, is brought. For instance, when asked to describe his adolescence, John responded that his peers mostly influenced his adolescent period. He lacked focus on what he wanted in life and therefore tried to copy other people’s lives. This form of confusion demonstrates identity crisis, a significant characteristic of adolescents. Additionally, regarding his memorable moments in adolescence, John explained that he loved attending parties and making new friends, especially of the opposite gender. This demonstrates that he was explorative and wanted to identify to fit in the society (Maree, 2021). During adolescence, John admits that he did not reason critically before making decisions. Instead, most of his decisions were influenced by his environment and his peers. He made choices that conform to the expectations of his peers rather than based on the consequences of their decisions. This shows that he lacked clarity and therefore did not know his identity.

John admits being uncomfortable when he realizes the changes in his physical appearance. He felt awkward, especially with his biceps and the protrusion of Adam’s apple. Furthermore, breaking his voice made him feel shy talking to people. However, he adapted to the changes after some time and started feeling optimistic about himself. Erikson argued that teens become more aware of their bodies during the adolescent stage and learn to accommodate the changes they experience (Maree, 2021). John’s response regarding his body changes conforms to this statement. During his adolescent stage, John engaged in several relationships. However, the relationship was not long-lasting but explorative. He was not fully committed to his relationships because he wanted to be free to socialize and engage with different people. John’s socialization was essential in enabling him to know his identity, which would shape his behavior during early adulthood. This response conforms to Erikson’s theory that the adolescent stage is characterized by confusion (Maree, 2021). When one overcomes this confusion, they develop the virtue of fidelity and commitment, which are essential in establishing and maintaining relationships.

John revealed that his peers primarily influenced his behavior and that his morality was derived from the people around him, especially his friends. According to Erikson’s identity versus confusion psychosocial crisis in adolescence, the increased interaction between a person and his peers tends to determine their behavior. Most adolescents make decisions depending on peer pressure to enable them to fit in a group and have a sense of belonging (Maree, 2021). John developed a behavior that conformed to the expectations of his peers. The fear of being isolated forced him to submit himself to peer pressure. John admits that he often perceives his adolescence negatively because he feels he lived according to the influence of other people. This feeling is often familiar in people who failed in handling the identity versus confusion crisis (Maree, 2021). As a result, they suffered an identity crisis that influenced them to live according to the expectations of their peers.

In conclusion, Erikson’s development theory outlines the crisis people face at each of the eight levels. Successful completion of each level leads to acquiring virtues that enable one to handle the other stages. John’s responses reflect the various assumptions of Erikson’s theory at the adolescent stage. The identity versus confusion crisis characterizes this stage. John’s responses demonstrate higher levels of confusion and identity crisis that influenced him to live according to the expectations of his peers to fit in their group and avoid isolation.

Maree, J. G. (2021). The psychosocial development theory of Erik Erikson: critical overview. Early Child Development and Care , 191 (7-8), 1107-1121.

Orenstein, G. A., & Lewis, L. (2021). Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development. In StatPearls [Internet] . StatPearls Publishing. Available from:

Syed, M., & Fish, J. (2018). Revisiting Erik Erikson’s legacy on culture, race, and ethnicity. Identity , 18 (4), 274-283.

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Strengths and Weaknesses of Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

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Table of contents

Strengths of erikson's psychosocial theory, weaknesses of erikson's psychosocial theory, criticisms and counterarguments.

• Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and Society. W. W. Norton & Company.
• Waterman, A. S. (1982). Identity development from adolescence to adulthood: An extension of theory and a review of research. Developmental Psychology, 18(3), 341-358.
• Côté, J. E., & Levine, C. G. (2014). Identity formation, agency, and culture: A social psychological synthesis. Psychology Press.

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Erikson’s Theory of Human Development and Its Impact on My Life Essay

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Introduction

The relation of the theory to the first four stages of my life, my personal development of adolescent characteristics.

Erikson’s theory of development describes eight stages which occur at a certain time of life (from infancy to old age) and are associated with specific developmental crises and tasks (Erikson, Erikson, & Kivnick, 1986; Malone, Liu, Vaillant, Rentz, & Waldinger, 2016). Erikson viewed the ability to meet these tasks and resolve these crises as important for one’s identity formation and mental health (Malone et al., 2016). Today, the theory is used as a framework for the development of humans (Knight, 2017; Malone et al., 2016). Furthermore, it has been employed to customize therapy (Marcia & Josselson, 2013). Therefore, I can apply it to my personal experience and reflect on my identity formation.

When using Erikson’s theory of development, it may be necessary to review the prior stages since they can affect each subsequent one. The first stage of development is infancy, in which children are balancing the feeling of trust and mistrust (Kalat, 2013; Malone et al., 2016). As I still struggle when establishing social relations, I believe that at that point, I was not successful in developing trust. The second stage is early childhood, and its critical conflict is autonomy versus shame and doubt (Malone et al., 2016). I think that I was successful there and developed a sense of control over my abilities because I have not experienced any issues with autonomy in my adolescent life.

The third stage is the preschool age, during which the sense of initiative or guilt is formed (Kalat, 2013). I have struggled with a sense of guilt over my decisions in adolescence, which makes me think that I was not successful then. The fourth stage is referred to as the school age. During it, the sense of industry or inferiority is established (Kalat, 2013). I believe that I have developed a sense of inferiority due to my academic struggles, which resulted in doubts and problems with decision-making. With the mentioned successes and failures, I entered the fifth stage: my adolescence.

According to Erikson, the fifth stage involves the task of acquiring one’s identity, which can either be a success or lead to role confusion (Malone et al., 2016). I believe I made some progress in my identity formation during adolescence. For example, I developed a relatively good understanding of my character. The five positive characteristics I have are honesty, loyalty, compassion, preference, and fairness. I became aware of my positive features mainly when learning how to cope with difficulties because thinking of the good traits helped my self-esteem and confidence. I believe that good characteristics balance out the negative ones, which aids me in focusing on the good side of my character and develop it. It is the primary way for me to overcome the negative aspects of my personality: I compensate them with what is good about me.

The five negative features that I have are messiness, shyness, criticism, thin skin and laziness. I have been aware of the messiness, shyness, and laziness since I was a child due to the remarks from my friends and family. The criticism and the thin skin aspects became evident to me in my adolescence when I was looking for an explanation of my issues with establishing social relationships. Thus, I experienced a growing understanding of my identity in my youth.

My concerns during early adolescence were connected to fitting with the rest of my environment. During my middle adolescence, I was worried about what I wanted to do in life. During my late adolescence, I was focused on understanding myself and my personality better. In the first two stages, I could not figure out how to deal with my issues, and the only tool that I used to address them was self-reflection. Consequently, they led me to the point where I wanted to understand myself better. I think that the latter stage was the key to dealing with the mentioned problems, and it is also directly connected to the typical adolescence crisis described by Erikson.

The event that marked a positive turning point in my life and had a profound influence on my personality was the change in my relationships with parents. During my middle adolescence, we had a lot of issues with communication. I think that the lack of trust between us at the time could be traced back to my infancy stage. However, by the end of my adolescence, I decided that I needed to understand myself better to be able to build good relationships with people. Looking back, I think that the hard time in my life pushed me towards becoming more mature, and I do not feel too bad about it.

I believe that my relationships with peers were not healthy for the most of my childhood and early adolescent life. As for other connections, I had some problems with the teachers who I viewed as excessively strict. I did not have any romantic interests, but I was not worried about it; my main concern was the problems with making friends. My thin skin was also contributing to the issue because I could be offended by any minor remark. I think that the mentioned difficulties can be traced back to my sense of inferiority which was developed during school age; problematic relationships also enhanced the feeling and made my life rather miserable. However, by the middle of my adolescence, I was learning to understand my issues and work on my negative traits, which helped me connect later in life.

My relationship with my parents was complicated during my childhood and middle youth because of the misunderstandings between us. This problem was resolved over the course of my adolescence as I became more aware of the issue and started working on it. The positive aspect of our relationship is the feeling that we will support each other because we are a family. It is a sense I had even at the times when our relationship was in bad stages.

The application of Erikson’s theory to my personal development can yield the following conclusions. I did not always manage to resolve the crises of different developmental stages, which affected my subsequent identity formation in a way that can be perceived as negative. However, during adolescence, my progress towards understanding my identity helped me to resolve some of the issues that followed from prior stages. Self-reflection was my main concern at the time, but it also was a tool, and it helped me to improve my ability to connect with other people.

Erikson, E., Erikson, J., & Kivnick, H. (1986). Vital involvement in old age . New York, NY: W. W. Norton.

Kalat, J. W. (2013). Introduction to psychology (9th ed.). New York, NY: Cengage Learning.

Knight, Z. (2017). A proposed model of psychodynamic psychotherapy linked to Erik Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy , 24 (5), 1047-1058.

Malone, J., Liu, S., Vaillant, G., Rentz, D., & Waldinger, R. (2016). Midlife Eriksonian psychosocial development: Setting the stage for late-life cognitive and emotional health. Developmental Psychology , 52 (3), 496-508.

Marcia, J., & Josselson, R. (2013). Eriksonian personality research and its implications for psychotherapy. Journal of Personality , 81 (6), 617-629.

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IvyPanda. (2021, June 19). Erikson’s Theory of Human Development and Its Impact on My Life. https://ivypanda.com/essays/eriksons-theory-of-human-development-and-its-impact-on-my-life/

"Erikson’s Theory of Human Development and Its Impact on My Life." IvyPanda , 19 June 2021, ivypanda.com/essays/eriksons-theory-of-human-development-and-its-impact-on-my-life/.

IvyPanda . (2021) 'Erikson’s Theory of Human Development and Its Impact on My Life'. 19 June.

IvyPanda . 2021. "Erikson’s Theory of Human Development and Its Impact on My Life." June 19, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/eriksons-theory-of-human-development-and-its-impact-on-my-life/.

1. IvyPanda . "Erikson’s Theory of Human Development and Its Impact on My Life." June 19, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/eriksons-theory-of-human-development-and-its-impact-on-my-life/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Erikson’s Theory of Human Development and Its Impact on My Life." June 19, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/eriksons-theory-of-human-development-and-its-impact-on-my-life/.

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