Handbook of Multivariate Experimental Psychology
- © 1988
- John R. Nesselroade 0 ,
- Raymond B. Cattell 1
Pennsylvania State University, University Park, USA
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University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, USA
Part of the book series: Perspectives on Individual Differences (PIDF)
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Multivariate Exploratory Approaches
Multilevel multivariate meta-analysis made easy: An introduction to MLMVmeta
Factor Analysis Revisited
- experimental psychology
Table of contents (26 chapters)
Front matter, multivariate method and theory construction, psychological theory and scientific method.
Raymond B. Cattell
The Principles of Experimental Design and Analysis in Relation to Theory Building
The data box, the meaning and strategic use of factor analysis, multivariate modeling and data analysis, analysis of covariance structures.
- Karl G. Jöreskog
Exploratory Factor Analysis
- Richard L. Gorsuch
Confirmatory Factor Analysis
- Stanley A. Mulaik
Multimode Factor Analysis
- Conrad Wesley Snyder Jr.
Causal Modeling via Structural Equation Systems
- P. M. Bentler
Multivariate Analysis of Discrete Data
- Clifford C. Clogg, James W. Shockey
Some Multivariate Developments in Nonparametric Statistics
- Alexander von Eye
Multivariate Analysis of Variance
- Maurice M. Tatsuoka
Multidimensional Scaling
- Robert MacCallum
The Methods and Problems of Cluster Analysis
- Roger K. Blashfield, Mark S. Aldenderfer
Human Behavior Genetics
- George P. Vogler, David W. Fulker
Multivariate Reliability Theory
- Werner W. Wittmann
Dynamic but Structural Equation Modeling of Repeated Measures Data
- J. J. McArdle
Editors and Affiliations
John R. Nesselroade
Serial Position Effect (Glanzer & Cunitz, 1966)
Saul McLeod, PhD
Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester
Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.
Learn about our Editorial Process
Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc
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Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.
Some of the strongest evidence for the multi-store model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) comes from serial position effect studies and studies of brain-damaged patients.
The serial position effect is the tendency to remember the first and last items in a series better than those in the middle. It is a form of cognitive bias that is thought to be due to how information is processed and stored in memory.
The tendency to recall earlier words is called the primacy effect; the tendency to recall later words is called the recency effect.
Murdock (1962)
Murdock’s experiment involved a total of 103 participants, all of whom were students from an introductory psychology course. The participants were of both sexes and were fulfilling a course requirement by taking part in the study.
Murdock presented participants with lists of 10 to 40 words, one word at a time, at a rate of either one word per second or one word every two seconds.
Independent variables:
- List length : The number of words in each list, which varied among 10, 15, 20, 30, and 40 words.
- Presentation rate : The speed at which the words were presented, either 1 word per second or 1 word every 2 seconds.
Dependent variable:
- Probability of recall : The likelihood that a word would be recalled, based on its serial position in the list. This was measured by the proportion of participants who correctly recalled each word at a given serial position
Detween Subjects Design
The participants were assigned to one of the six groups, each of which had a different combination of list length and presentation rate.
- Group 10-2 (10 words, 2 seconds/word): 18 participants
- Group 20-1 (20 words, 1 second/word): 16 participants
- Group 15-2 (15 words, 2 seconds/word): 19 participants
- Group 30-1 (30 words, 1 second/word): 19 participants
- Group 20-2 (20 words, 2 seconds/word): 15 participants
- Group 40-1 (40 words, 1 second/word): 16 participants
After the list was finished, participants were asked to recall as many words as they could in any order.
Murdock found that the probability of recalling any word depended on its serial position in the list.
Words presented early in the list (primacy effect) and at the end of the list (recency effect) were more often recalled, while words in the middle were more frequently forgotten.
The recency effect extended over the last 8 serial positions and was present even in longer lists of up to 40 words.
Additionally, Murdock observed a flat middle section (asymptote) in the serial position curve, which was less pronounced in shorter lists.
The improved recall of words at the beginning of the list is called the primacy effect; that at the end of the list, the recency effect. This recency effect exists even when the list is lengthened to 40 words.
Separate Memory Stores
According to the multi-store model , when participants recall words from the beginning and end of the list, they are retrieving information from two separate memory stores: long-term memory for the primary information and short-term memory for the recent information.
The primacy effect occurs because participants have time to rehearse the first few words in the list, transferring them from short-term memory to long-term memory .
The recency effect occurs because the last few words in the list are still available in short-term memory , which is thought to have a capacity of around 7 items.
Words in the middle of the list are less likely to be recalled because they have been displaced from short-term memory by subsequent words, but not rehearsed enough to be transferred to long-term memory. This results in the asymptote, or flat middle section of the serial position curve.
Inhibition Effects
Murdock suggested that the shape of the serial position curve might be a result of proactive and retroactive inhibition effects occurring within the list itself.
He noted that the primacy effect levels off after the first 3 or 4 serial positions, consistent with findings that proactive interference effects in short-term memory are greatest after about 3 prior words.
The horizontal asymptote in the middle of the list agrees with the observation that retroactive interference effects in short-term memory approach a non-zero asymptote.
Lastly, the S-shaped recency effect aligns with the curve of retroactive interference in short-term memory. Murdock proposed that these inhibition effects combine to produce the characteristic shape of the serial position curve in free recall.
- Large sample size : Murdock used a total of 103 participants, which increases the reliability and generalizability of the results.
- Varied list lengths and presentation rates : By using different list lengths (10, 15, 20, 30, and 40 words) and presentation rates (1 or 2 seconds per word), Murdock could examine the serial position effect under various conditions.
- Limited scope : The experiment focused solely on the serial position effect in free recall of unrelated words. It did not investigate the effect in other contexts or with different types of stimuli (e.g., related words, sentences, or images).
- Lack of control for individual differences : Although the large sample size helps mitigate this issue, individual differences in memory abilities, strategies, or motivation may have influenced the results.
- Artificial setting : The experiment was conducted in a controlled laboratory setting, which may not fully reflect how memory works in real-life situations.
- Potential confounding variables: Factors such as fatigue, practice effects, or variations in attention during the experiment may have influenced participants’ performance, although Murdock did attempt to control for some of these factors (e.g., by analyzing practice effects across sessions).
- Limited generalizability : The experiment used only college students as participants, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to other populations or age groups.
Glanzer and Cunitz (1966)
The study involved two separate experiments (immediate vs delayed recall).
Participants were Army enlisted men (not randomly assigned). They recalled 20-word lists in Exp I and 15-word lists in Exp II.
Experiment I (Immediate Recall)
In Experiment I, presentation rate (1S/P, 2S, 3S) and repetition of words (1S/P, 2P, 3P) were manipulated to examine effects on long-term storage and the beginning of the serial position curve.
- Presentation rate : 1 sec/word (1S/P), 2 sec/word (2S), or 3 sec/word (3S)
- Repetition : Each word presented once (1S/P), twice (2P), or thrice (3P)
- After each list, participants had 2 minutes to write down the words they recalled in any order.
Experiment II (Delayed Condition)
In Experiment II, delay between end of list and recall (0, 10, 30 sec) was varied to examine effects on short-term storage and the end of the serial position curve. During the delay, subjects counted out loud.
- Army enlisted men were shown fifteen 15-word lists. Each word was shown for 1 sec with 2 sec between words.
- After the last word of each list, a number from 0-9 was shown. If 0, participants immediately recalled the words. If another number, they counted aloud from that number for either 10 or 30 sec before recalling.
- Each delay condition (0, 10, 30 sec) was used for 5 lists per participant, in random order.
Primacy Effect (Experiment I)
- In the first experiment, people were better at remembering words from the beginning of a list compared to words in the middle. This is called the primacy effect.
- When the words were shown for a longer time (2 or 3 seconds instead of 1 second), people remembered the words at the beginning and middle of the list better, but it didn’t help much for the last few words.
- Showing the words more than once didn’t really help people remember the words at the beginning of the list better than just showing them for a longer time.
- The researchers think that the primacy effect happens because people have time to store the first few words in their long-term memory, which is like a big mental library.
Experimental psychology
An introduction., by benton j. underwood.
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Serial Position Effect (Glanzer & Cunitz, 1966) Some of the strongest evidence for the multi-store model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) comes from serial position effect studies and studies of brain-damaged patients. The serial position effect is the tendency to remember the first and last items in a series better than those in the middle.
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