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The Science of Badminton: Game Characteristics, Anthropometry, Physiology, Visual Fitness and Biomechanics

• Review Article
• Published: 31 December 2014
• Volume 45 , pages 473–495, ( 2015 )

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• Michael Phomsoupha 1 &
• Guillaume Laffaye 1  

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Badminton is a racket sport for two or four people, with a temporal structure characterized by actions of short duration and high intensity. This sport has five events: men’s and women’s singles, men’s and women’s doubles, and mixed doubles, each requiring specific preparation in terms of technique, control and physical fitness. Badminton is one of the most popular sports in the world, with 200 million adherents. The decision to include badminton in the 1992 Olympics Game increased participation in the game. This review focuses on the game characteristics, anthropometry, physiology, visual attributes and biomechanics of badminton. Players are generally tall and lean, with an ectomesomorphic body type suited to the high physiological demands of a match. Indeed, a typical match characteristic is a rally time of 7 s and a resting time of 15 s, with an effective playing time of 31 %. This sport is highly demanding, with an average heart rate (HR) of over 90 % of the player’s maximal HR. The intermittent actions during a game are demanding on both the aerobic and anaerobic systems: 60–70 % on the aerobic system and approximately 30 % on the anaerobic system, with greater demand on the alactic metabolism with respect to the lactic anaerobic metabolism. The shuttlecock has an atypical trajectory, and the players perform specific movements such as lunging and jumping, and powerful strokes using a specific pattern of movement. Lastly, badminton players are visually fit, picking up accurate visual information in a short time. Knowledge of badminton can help to improve coaching and badminton skills.

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Acknowledgments

Michael Phomsoupha and Guillaume Laffaye have no potential conflicts of interest that are directly relevant to the content of this review. No sources of funding were used to assist in the preparation of this review.

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Phomsoupha, M., Laffaye, G. The Science of Badminton: Game Characteristics, Anthropometry, Physiology, Visual Fitness and Biomechanics. Sports Med 45 , 473–495 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-014-0287-2

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Research Article

Effect of core strength training on the badminton player’s performance: A systematic review & meta-analysis

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected] (SM); [email protected] (KGS)

Affiliations Department of Sports Studies, Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia, School of Public Administration, Guilin University of Technology, Guilin, China

Roles Conceptualization, Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Department of Sports Studies, Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia

Roles Conceptualization, Supervision, Writing – review & editing

Roles Data curation

Roles Investigation

Affiliation School of Physical Education and Arts, Jiangxi University of Science and Technology, Ganzhou, China

Affiliation Physical Education Department, Tianjin Binhai Automotive Engineering Vocational College, Tianjin, China

• Shuzhen Ma, 
• Kim Geok Soh, 
• Salimah Binti Japar, 
• Chunqing Liu, 
• Shengyao Luo, 
• Yiqiang Mai, 
• Xinzhi Wang, 
• Mengze Zhai

• Published: June 12, 2024
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305116
• Reader Comments

Core strength training (CST) has been shown to improve performance in several sports disciplines. CST is recognized as one of the crucial elements that enhance athletic performance, particularly impacting badminton skills. Despite its popularity as a strength training method among badminton players, there is a lack of comprehensive studies examining the effectiveness of CST on the performance of these athletes.

This study aims to ascertain CST’s effects on badminton players’ performance.

This study followed PRISMA principles and conducted comprehensive searches in well-known academic databases (SCOPUS, Pubmed, CNKI, Web of Science, Core Collection, and EBSCOhost) up to August 2023. The inclusive criteria were established using the PICOS framework. Following their inclusion based on PICOS criteria, the selected studies underwent literature review and meta-analysis. The methodological quality of the assessments was evaluated using Cochrane Collaboration’s risk of bias tools bias risk tools and recommendations for a graded assessment, development, and evaluation.

The analysis included participants aged 10–19 years from 13 studies of moderate quality, totaling 208 individuals. The CST intervention s lasted between 4 to 16 weeks, with a frequency of 1 to 4 sessions per week and each session lasting 20 to 120 minutes. Sample sizes across these studies ranged from 8 to 34 participants. According to the meta-analysis, CST significantly influenced badminton performance, particularly in areas of explosive power (ES = 0.03 P = 0.04), front-court skill (ES = 2.53, P = 0.003), and back-court skill (ES = 2.33, P = 0.002).

CST enhances badminton players’ fitness (strength, power, balance, and stability), in situ (front/back-court) skills, and movement position hitting. However, its effects on speed, endurance, agility, flexibility, and coordination are unclear, revealing a research gap. The precise benefits of CST, especially on flexibility and specific hitting skills (smashes, clears, drives, net shots, crosscourt, push, and lift shots), need more investigation. Additionally, research on CST’s impact on female athletes is significantly lacking.

Citation: Ma S, Soh KG, Japar SB, Liu C, Luo S, Mai Y, et al. (2024) Effect of core strength training on the badminton player’s performance: A systematic review & meta-analysis. PLoS ONE 19(6): e0305116. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305116

Editor: Yaodong Gu, Ningbo University, CHINA

Received: December 14, 2023; Accepted: May 23, 2024; Published: June 12, 2024

Copyright: © 2024 Ma et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the manuscript and its Supporting Information files.

Funding: The author(s) received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

With frequent starts, stops, jumps, leaps, lunges, and quick direction changes, badminton is recognized as the fastest racquet sport in the world [ 1 ]. A wide range of deft postural adjustments and motions are necessary for badminton [ 2 ]. To become an elite-level athlete, a high level of skill is required [ 3 , 4 ]. The movement of badminton players when hitting the ball can be categorized into in situ skills and movement position hitting skills [ 5 ]. Based on the various court areas, the performance of badminton skills is divided into three categories: front court (such as spinning net shots, lift shots, crosscourt shots, push shots, and rush shots), mid court (such as drives), and backcourt (such as smashes, drop shots, and hight clears) [ 6 ].

Over the past few decades, there has been a rise in badminton research, which has updated our understanding of the physical, biomechanical, psychological, tactical, technical, and timing aspects of players [ 7 , 8 ]. Researchers have discovered that athletes’ physical health and skills influence their competitive capacity [ 9 ]. Only if players maintain robust physical ability can they handle emergencies on the court and secure victories [ 10 ]. Physical fitness in badminton encompasses muscular strength, power, speed, coordination, endurance, flexibility, agility, stability, and balance [ 11 – 13 ]. In badminton, maintaining shuttle stability and controlling stroke trajectory are crucial. The core strength focus is on stabilizing the players’ core body parts by harnessing their arms and legs’ power to control the shuttle’s formation and movement trajectory. Thus, it is vital to examine how players’ core strength impacts their movement during badminton play [ 14 ].

In the 1990s, core strength training (CST)—a novel concept in strength training- was introduced to rehabilitate competitive athletes [ 15 ]. The competitive sports training community in China has increasingly come to accept and value CST in the 21st century. Thus far, CST has emerged as a particularly significant and unique form of strength training, gaining popularity among athletes [ 16 ]. A strong core serves as the foundation for the muscles of the upper and lower limbs, facilitating the acceleration of body parts during the performance of motor skills and the transfer of power between proximal and distal body parts [ 3 , 17 ]. Core stability training is essential for any racket sports player, but it is especially critical for badminton players who frequently perform smashes throughout the game [ 18 ]. Fitness experts are growing concerned about utilizing trunk stability exercises [ 19 ]. In recent years, CST has gained popularity as a means to enhance performance [ 10 ]. However, further research is necessary to understand the benefits of CST for professional athletes and to determine the most effective ways to conduct such training to maximize athletic performance [ 20 ].

Numerous studies suggest that the core muscles facilitate proximal stability for distal mobility [ 17 , 21 – 23 ]. In sports, core stability optimally stabilizes the torso’s position and motion, enabling the efficient transfer and regulation of force from the body’s center to the limbs [ 24 ]. The core area acts as a hinge or bridge that connects the upper and lower limbs, facilitating movement. The stability of this link not only determines the firmness of the limbs’ fulcrum but also influences the accuracy and quality of overall body movements [ 25 – 27 ]. For athletes, core training should be tailored to the necessary sports skills [ 28 ]. Badminton players need a sufficiently strong core and high dynamic balance to execute rapid postural changes on the court [ 29 ].

The core is the foundation or engine of all limb movements, known in alternative medicine as the "powerhouse" [ 3 , 29 , 30 ]. Historically, core stability exercises frequently treated lower extremity and lower back injuries [ 31 ]. Core stability training has recently been shown to enhance player performance [ 31 ]. Athletes’ performance is directly impacted by their ability to balance, jump vertically, move quickly, and compete [ 32 – 34 ]. Athletes’ ability to compete, balance, vertical leap height, and movement speed are crucial to their performance. For instance, after a spike shot, volleyball players frequently lose their balance and change their center of gravity, landing on one leg. Such single-leg landings following a volleyball spike may increase the risk of anterior cruciate ligament injury more than landing on both legs [ 35 ]. In badminton, the development of badminton-specific footwork training has evolved from traditional physical exercises to novel intervention approaches [ 36 ], where good balance significantly improves players’ on-court footwork performance [ 2 ]. An excellent vertical leap height may make the players smash more effectively [ 37 ], and a rapid moving speed can make the badminton players more active when receiving the opponent’s return ball, boosting badminton players’ chances of winning the match [ 38 ]. Possessing a solid competitive ability can significantly enhance athletes’ chances of winning [ 39 ].

For athletes to improve performance, core exercises must be more intricate and demanding [ 9 ]. Core training is the entire program’s foundation and must be combined with static low-intensity core stability training and high-load dynamic CST [ 9 ]. The two main categories of core training are static and dynamic CST [ 40 ]. In static CST, the joint and muscle are either held in a static position while being opposed by resistance (sub-maximal muscle action) or working against an immovable force (maximal muscle action) [ 41 ]. Meanwhile, dynamic CST can be regarded as dynamic exercises performed to exert a muscle force concentrically, eccentrically, repeatedly, or continuously over time [ 40 ].

Moreover, the surface of the core exercise can also be changed in dynamic CST to promote higher proprioceptive demands and, consequently, increased core activation [ 42 ]. In addition, if athletes neglect CST, their ability to control and use muscle strength throughout the body will be impaired, potentially increasing their risk of sports injuries [ 9 , 43 ]. Studies suggest that weak or uncoordinated core muscles disrupt energy transfer. Strain and overuse also reduce movement effectiveness, which could result in injuries [ 44 , 45 ]. Kimura also found that when badminton players landed with a single leg after overhead stroke skills, their knee valgus moment increased due to inadequate trunk flexion strength [ 34 ]. Therefore, exercises for core stability are commonly utilized to prevent lower back and lower limb injuries, and athletes who neglect their core suffer injuries [ 32 , 33 , 34 ].

In badminton, the stability of the ball’s return is crucial due to various uncertain factors such as angle, arc distance, and ball direction [ 16 ]. The core musculature serves as a connecting bridge between the upper and lower extremities, playing a crucial role in transporting energy from the proximal to the distal body segments [ 46 , 47 ]. This stabilization helps regulate the center of gravity and connects the upper and lower limbs, forming the basis for badminton players to execute techniques such as sprinting, throwing, and jumping [ 17 ]. Consequently, core strength plays a crucial role as the fundamental component in badminton movements [ 16 ], and CST helps to improve badminton techniques. Research has demonstrated CST’s significant impact on enhancing badminton performance [ 48 ]. Rotational trunk strength is essential for badminton players because it affects how the body moves during the smashing part of the smash skill. A strong core helps badminton players maintain a steady stroke and improve their smashing technique [ 49 ].

Athletes in football, handball, basketball, swimming, dancing, Karate, Muay Thai, gymnastics, volleyball, badminton, and golf can all benefit from CST [ 9 ]. For example, prior research has demonstrated that golfers’ repeated club-head speed and backspin assessments slightly decreased variability following CST (-8.2%), suggesting a more stable golf swing [ 50 ]. Following CST, karate athletes demonstrated a significant change in post-test results for the spinning wheel kick evaluation compared to the control groups [ 51 ]. Additional data is required, such as from running and volleyball, to validate the impact of CST on badminton performance. This includes explaining the differences in gait patterns between high and low-mileage runners using machine learning [ 52 , 53 ] and examining temporal kinematic and kinetic differences in various landing techniques following volleyball spike shots [ 35 , 54 ]. This review and meta-analysis aim to provide an extensive overview of how CST affects badminton players’ performance.

Protocol and registration

This systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted in adherence to the PRISMA statement [ 55 ], as registered on Inplasy.com (INPLASY2023110098).

Search strategy

This study utilizes well-known databases to search for relevant literature, including SCOPUS, PubMed, CNKI, Web of Science Core Collection, and EBSCOhost, up until September 2023. The search keywords employed are: (“Core strength training” OR “Core training” OR “Core-muscle training” OR “Core exercise” OR “Core-stability exercise”) AND (“Badminton athletes” OR “badminton players” OR “badminton beginners” OR “shuttler”).

The PICOS criteria, including population, intervention, comparison, outcome, and study design, are detailed in Table 1 . The primary focus of this study is how badminton players’ performance is affected by core strength training (CST). The study will include the literature if it satisfies the following requirements.

1) Population: The test objects are badminton players of different skill levels. The skill level of badminton players is divided from low to high, ranging from beginners, school level, provincial level, and national level.

2) Intervention: The intervention involves conducting CST experiments for a duration of more than four weeks, as studies have shown that training periods shorter than four weeks do not significantly enhance athletes’ performance [ 56 , 57 ].

3) Comparison: At least two groups were included, and the CST group was compared to other training or no training as the comparison benchmark.

4) Outcome: The outcome was centered on the badminton players’ performance. This study primarily focuses on badminton performance’s physical fitness and skill aspects. The definition of skills performance is as follows. Based on the various court areas, badminton skills performance is divided into three categories: front court (such as spinning net shot, lift shot, crosscourt shot, push shot, and rush shot), mid court (such as drive), and backcourt (such as smash, drop shot, and hight clear) [ 6 ]. Whether badminton players need to move when hitting the ball can be divided into situ skills and move position hit skills [ 5 ]. On the other hand, some components of badminton physical fitness performance are muscular strength, power, speed, coordination, endurance, flexibility, agility, stability, and balance [ 11 – 13 ].

5) Study design: This review considers randomized controlled studies.

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https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305116.t001

Study selection

This review and meta-analysis initially utilize the EndNote citation management system to eliminate duplicate research papers. Two impartial reviewers assess the titles and abstracts of articles, selecting those that meet the predetermined inclusion criteria and rejecting those that do not. Articles chosen in this manner are then read in full. During this phase, any articles that cannot be accessed in full text will be excluded. In cases of differing opinions, a third reviewer is consulted to provide advice until a consensus is achieved.

Data extraction and quality assessment

After completing the data search, data from qualified studies were collected using a predetermined extraction form that included: 1) author name and publication year, 2) type of athletes, 3) population characteristics, 4) study design (including week, frequency, whether randomized, methods, and intensity), 5) measures and intensity, and 6) outcomes. The PEDro scale, known for its strong validity and reliability, has been demonstrated to be a dependable indicator of methodological quality in constructing a systematic review.

In systematic reviews, the PEDro scale is frequently employed [ 58 ]. It has demonstrated excellent validity and reliability, highlighting the advantages of using the PEDro scale as a valuable tool for evaluating the quality of experimental methodology [ 59 ]. The purpose of the PEDro scale is to assess four main methodological components of a study: data analysis, group comparison, blinding procedures, and randomization processes [ 60 ]. The scale comprises 11 parts: 1) inclusion criteria and source; 2) random allocation; 3) allocation concealment; 4) baseline comparability; 5) blinding of subjects; 6) blinding of therapists; 7) blinding of assessors; 8) adequate (>85%) follow-up; 9) intention-to-treat analysis; 10) between-group comparison; and 11) point estimates and variability [ 61 ]. An overall score, ranging from 0 to 10, is calculated by adding the answers for items 2 through 11, as item 1, which addresses external validity, is not included in the grading [ 61 ].

The assessment of the 11 items on the PEDro scale was carried out by two independent raters using ‘yes’ (1 point) or ‘no’ (0 points). Furthermore, a third rater resolved any disagreements that arose during the scoring process. The quality of the methodology improves with higher PEDro scores. It is important to note that the eligibility criteria score is not included in the final score due to its correlation with external effectiveness. Research achieving a score of 8 to 10 is considered methodologically outstanding. Studies with a score of 5 to 7 are regarded as good, those scoring 3 to 4 are fair, and studies scoring less than 3 are considered poor [ 62 ]. The reliability of the PEDro total score is passably excellent [ 63 , 64 ], although the dependability of individual scale items varies from moderate to outstanding [ 63 , 65 – 67 ]. Therefore, this study primarily focuses on evaluating article quality based on the total PEDro score, which ranges from 0 to 10, where higher scores indicate better methodological quality [ 60 ].

Risk of bias

The Cochrane Risk of Bias (RoB) tool was utilized to conduct the RoB assessment [ 68 ]. It assesses RoB across seven domains: random sequence generation, concealment of assignment, blinding of participants and personnel, blinding of outcome assessment, incomplete outcome data, selective reporting, and other sources of bias [ 69 ]. Each domain can be categorized as ‘low’, ‘unclear’ or ‘high’ risk. Following guidelines on the Cochrane Training webpage, two reviewers independently used the most recent version of the Cochrane RoB assessment for randomized trials (RoB-2) to evaluate the RoB of each identified RCT [ 70 ].

Statistical analysis

Although the meta-analytical comparison required only two studies [ 71 ], the sample size for CST is relatively small. Therefore, we only conducted a meta-analysis when three or more studies reported data on the above technical skills outcomes [ 72 ]. To reflect the effect size (ES), we used the mean and standard deviation of the performance indicators before and after the intervention. We then normalized the data using the post-intervention performance measures [ 73 ]. The meta-analysis employed the random-effects mode [ 74 ], facilitating analysis while accounting for heterogeneity across studies [ 75 ]. The I 2 statistics were used to assess the impact of study heterogeneity, with values of < 25%, 25–75%, and > 75% indicating low, moderate, and high levels of heterogeneity, respectively [ 76 ]. The extended Egger’s test was used to investigate the risk of publication bias [ 77 , 78 ], with a statistical significance threshold of P < 0.05.

The record selection flow chart is depicted in Fig 1 . This study retrieved 70 publications from databases, including grey literature. Of these, 53 were sourced from five main databases: 3 from SCOPUS, 1 from PubMed, 1 from the Web of Science Core Collection, 1 from EBSCOhost, and 47 from CNKI. After removing duplicates, 55 papers were identified as research articles, of which 51 full-text studies were subsequently evaluated in the next phase, following the disqualification of 4 full-text articles for reasons not specified at this point. In the elimination phase, 27 articles were excluded for not being experimental studies, 1 for having an experimental duration of less than 4 weeks, 4 for lacking core strength training methods, and 6 for not being RCT studies. Ultimately, the analysis included a total of 13 publications.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305116.g001

In this graph ( Fig 2 ), each row represents a study, and each column corresponds to a type of bias. The color denotes the likelihood of each bias type occurring in the studies: green for a low risk of bias, yellow for an unclear risk of bias, and red for a high risk of bias (RoB). The analysis identified high RoB in random sequence generation (selection bias), allocation concealment (selection bias), and blinding of participants and personnel (performance bias) across these 13 studies. Among these, blinding of participants and personnel was found to pose the highest risk. Conversely, blinding of outcome assessment (detection bias), incomplete outcome data (attrition bias), selective reporting (reporting bias), and other biases were associated with a lower risk.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305116.g002

Participant characteristics

The population characteristics of the 13 included studies ( Table 3 ) were reported based on the following criteria: (1) Geographical location: One study was from Turkey [ 79 ], three from India [ 79 – 81 ], with the remainder originating from China. (2) Sample size: The studies involved a total of 208 subjects, averaging 16 participants each, ranging from 8 to 28. (3) Gender: In this study, 6 articles focused on males [ 27 , 82 – 86 ], 4 articles focused on females combined with males [ 80 , 81 , 87 , 88 ], and the remaining 3 articles did not specialize on gender [ 79 , 89 , 90 ], no articles focused on females. (4) Level: 10 articles had participants at the school level [ 27 , 81 – 87 , 89 , 90 ], 1 article included participants at the beginner level [ 79 ], 1 article contained participants at the provincial level [ 88 ], and 1 article involved participants at the national level [ 86 ]. (5) Age: Participants’ ages spanned from 10 to 29 years, with a focus on the 18–22 year age group in the review articles, except one which did not specify an age range [ 81 ]. (6) Body Mass Index (BMI): The subjects’ heights and weights were reported as follows—males: 1.72–1.80 m in height and 57.58–75 kg in weight; females: 1.68–1.70 m in height and 49.82–50.75 kg in weight. The BMI for men was primarily within 18.3–23.2, and for women, it was 17.5–17.6. Two articles did not report BMI or specify gender [ 80 , 81 ].

PEDro score and study design

The PEDro scores of the included articles are summarized in Table 2 , with scores ranging from 3 to 6. The mean PEDro score was 4.61, indicative of moderate quality, with overall reliability assessed as ranging from ’fair’ to ’good’ [ 63 ]. Score differences primarily depended on the inclusion of group comparisons. The study designs are detailed in Table 3 , with all articles being published between 2012 and 2023. The duration of interventions reported was between 4 to 16 weeks, with the shortest and longest durations being 4 weeks and 16 weeks, respectively. Of the studies, 11 reported the frequency of interventions, whereas two did not specify this detail [ 83 , 88 ]. Additionally, 11 studies employed a randomized design, while two did not use random assignment for participant groups [ 83 , 87 ].

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305116.t002

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305116.t003

Training programs

Table 3 details the intervention types across 13 studies, focusing on methods, duration, frequency, and session length. The studies showed consistency with prior research in subject levels and laboratory settings. The objective was to identify discrepancies or confirm consistency in experimental controls. The majority utilized both dynamic and static training methods, with experiments typically dividing participants into two groups for comparison. Most studies contrasted the core strength training (CST) group with the traditional strength training (TST) group over an eight-week period, training 2–3 times weekly, though training intensity was not specified. Specifically, 12 articles reported combining dynamic and static training under CST [ 27 , 79 – 87 , 89 , 90 ], with one study comparing dynamic to static core strength [ 88 ]. To underline training effects, 4 studies included a non-training (NT) control group [ 27 , 79 , 80 , 87 ], 7 compared CST to TST [ 82 – 86 , 89 , 90 ], one contrasted it with plyometric training (PT) [ 80 ], and one study directly compared dynamic core strength (DCS) to static core strength (SCS) [ 88 ]. All researchers divided participants into two groups for controlled comparisons.

On the other hand, while 13 authors applied the randomized method to ensure experimental randomness, the methodologies of two other authors require clearer elaboration [ 83 , 87 ]. RCTs enable the management of several forms of bias that are difficult to control in other study designs, such as cohort, case-control, and non-randomized controlled trials [ 91 ]. Thus, this study advocates for the use of RCTs due to their significant contributions to conducting research with high relevance and validity. (1) Intervention Period: Regarding the intervention duration, frequency, and session length, two articles reported training sessions of 25 minutes each [ 27 , 82 ], and one varied between 20–25 minutes [ 80 ]. Other specified durations included 80 minutes and 120 minutes [ 81 , 86 , 89 ]. Eight articles did not detail training intensity [ 79 , 81 , 83 – 85 , 87 , 88 , 90 ]. (2) Intervention Duration: Training durations spanned from 4 to 16 weeks. Five studies favored an 8-week regimen, the most common duration [ 80 , 84 , 87 , 89 , 90 ]. Additional durations included 4 weeks [ 85 ], 6 weeks [ 79 , 89 ], 10 weeks [ 27 , 82 ], and 12 weeks [ 86 , 88 ], with one study extending to 16 weeks [ 83 ]. (3) Intervention Frequency: Sessions ranged from 2 to 5 times weekly. Five studies scheduled training twice a week [ 79 , 81 , 84 , 87 , 90 ], another five three times a week [ 27 , 81 , 82 , 85 , 86 ], and one four times weekly [ 89 ]. Two studies’ frequency details were lacking [ 83 , 88 ].

Meta-analysis results and outcome

Among the 13 articles included in this review’s meta-analysis, 11 examined the impact of CST on the physical fitness of badminton players [ 27 , 79 – 83 , 85 , 86 , 88 – 90 ], 8 explored the impact of CST on the technical quality of badminton players [ 27 , 79 , 82 – 84 , 86 , 87 , 89 ], and only 1 article addressed the impact of CST on the psychological aspects of badminton players [ 87 ]. There is no consensus among the more frequently studied indicators. Therefore, a meta-analysis of metrics from three or more studies, which were inconsistent, was conducted to find a more precise answer.

Effect of core strength training on physical fitness

Of the 13 articles on the physical fitness of badminton players, 5 articles related to strength [ 83 , 86 , 88 – 90 ], 4 articles measured power [ 83 , 86 , 89 , 90 ], 5 articles involved speed [ 83 , 85 , 86 , 89 , 90 ], 2 articles addressed agility [ 79 , 81 ], 3 articles discussed balance [ 79 – 81 ], and 3 articles examined stability [ 27 , 82 , 88 ].

Of the 13 studies included in this systematic review and meta-analysis, 5 investigated the effects of CST on muscle strength [ 83 , 86 , 88 – 90 ]. The muscular strength tests employed in these studies encompassed the standing long jump [ 83 , 86 , 89 , 90 ], 30-second double shake rope skipping [ 83 , 86 , 90 ], standing shuttlecock kicking [ 89 ], one-minute sit-ups [ 89 ], 60 seconds push-ups [ 86 ], the plank [ 86 ], throwing a solid ball from a stationary position, and the shot put throw sideways from a stationary position with 60° and 180° muscle strength tests [ 83 ]. Regarding the test results, 3 articles reported an increase in muscle strength following CST [ 83 , 88 ], 2 articles found no significant difference in muscle strength after CST compared to the control group [ 89 , 90 ], and the results were mixed in 1 article [ 86 ]. Consequently, the impact of CST on muscle strength has yet to be conclusively determined.

The standing long jump (SLJ) is commonly used to assess lower body explosive power [ 92 – 94 ], and one study has also confirmed the effectiveness of the SLJ for assessing muscle strength or explosive power [ 94 ]. This review and meta-analysis include four articles that measure power using the SLJ [ 83 , 86 , 89 , 90 ]. A general forest plot for measures of CST and the Standing Long Jump is presented in Fig 3 , and the results suggest that CST yields positive effects in badminton players for their muscular strength or explosive power (mean SMD = 0.03, I 2 = 0%, Chi 2 = 0.14, df = 2, P = 0.04). According to the results of Egger’s test (P = 0.542) presented in S1 Fig , the four studies exhibit very low heterogeneity.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305116.g003

Speed was assessed with a value of 5 in three of the nine studies included in this review and meta-analysis [ 83 , 85 , 86 , 89 , 90 ]. The evaluation tools and aspects considered included low center of gravity overturning [ 89 , 90 ], running with a straight back [ 90 ], the 25*5 Shuttle run [ 89 ], a quick 40-meter run [ 86 ], approximately 5 round trips [ 86 ], a 30-meter start run [ 83 ], a 25m × 5 round trip run [ 83 ], and field moving speed [ 85 ]. The results of one article reveal that CST can improve movement speed. However, four articles did not reach a consensus on the measurement of speed.

Two studies related to muscle endurance employed the core muscle endurance test as their measurement method [ 79 , 80 ]. One study demonstrated that participants increased muscle endurance through CST [ 79 ], while the other found no significant difference in muscle endurance between CST and reinforcement training [ 80 ].

Of the 13 studies in this review and meta-analysis, only three focused on balance [ 79 – 81 ]. The Star Excursion Balance Test (SEBT) was utilized in these studies [ 79 – 81 ]. Two of the studies reported that participants’ dynamic balance abilities were enhanced following CST [ 79 , 80 ]. However, in comparing the CST group with the enhanced training group, both showed improvements in dynamic stability, but no significant difference was observed between them [ 81 ].

In this review and meta-analysis, only two of the 13 studies focused on agility [ 79 , 81 ]. Both studies employed the Illinois Agility Test (IAT) but reported differing outcomes. One study found no significant difference in agility between participants who underwent CST and those who did not [ 79 ]. However, the other study indicated that both CST and plyometric training (PT) improved athletes’ agility, with no discernible difference between the CST and PT groups [ 81 ].

There are three studies related to stability [ 27 , 82 , 88 ]. Two studies employed the Functional Movement Screen (FMS) scores test method [ 27 , 82 ], and one used the Biering-Sørensen Test for Muscular Endurance (BFMC) stability testing method [ 88 ]. The two studies reported no significant differences in linear squat performance and thematic stability in the Core Stability Training (CST) group compared with the control group (P > 0.05) [ 27 , 82 ]. Another study showed that a combination of dynamic and static CST effectively improves trunk stability [ 88 ]. All three studies demonstrated that CST could enhance stability [ 27 , 82 , 88 ].

Effect of core strength training on skill performance.

Of the 8 articles on the skill performance of badminton players, 7 involve in-situ skills [ 27 , 82 , 83 , 86 , 87 , 89 , 90 ], and there was only one study on move-and-hit skills [ 84 ].

In-situ skills.

Among the 7 articles examining the effect of CST on in-situ skills [ 27 , 82 , 83 , 86 , 87 , 89 , 90 ], 4 studies focused on front court skills [ 27 , 83 , 86 , 89 ], another 4 on back court skills [ 83 , 87 , 89 , 90 ], and only one study addressed midfield skills [ 83 ]. The test indicators for front court skills included the spinning net shot [ 86 , 89 , 90 ], net lift [ 83 , 86 , 89 , 90 ], push shot [ 83 , 86 ], crosscourt shot [ 86 ], and Lift shot [ 83 , 86 ]. One researcher found that CST had no significant effect on front court skills [ 85 ], while findings from the other three studies were mixed [ 83 , 86 , 89 ]. In terms of midfield skills, some studies have shown that CST positively affects driving skills [ 87 ], but three other studies provided inconclusive results on various backcourt skill tests [ 83 , 89 , 90 ]. It is noteworthy that none of the studies compared the impact of CST on different aspects of badminton players’ skills in varying court positions. Additionally, the research on front and back court skills differs, with four studies focusing on net lift skills in the front court and high clear skills in the back court; three of these studies were included in a meta-analysis to verify the findings.

A meta-analysis of the net lift skills among front-court skills was conducted across three studies [ 83 , 86 , 89 ]. CST was found to have a large effect on badminton players’ performance, with a mean standardized mean difference (SMD) of 2.53 (I 2 = 0%, Chi 2 = 1.88, df = 2, P = 0.003) as shown in Fig 4 . This effect was significant when compared with other front-court net lift skills. Additionally, the results of Egger’s test, shown in S2 Fig , indicated minimal heterogeneity among these studies, with P = 0.252 (> 0.05).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305116.g004

A meta-analysis of the apparent height in backcourt skills, encompassing three studies [ 83 , 87 , 89 ], revealed that CST significantly improved badminton players’ performance, with a mean standardized mean difference (SMD) of 2.33 (I 2 = 0%, Chi 2 = 1.47, df = 2, P = 0.002) as shown in Fig 5 . The results of Egger’s test, shown in S3 Fig , indicated minimal heterogeneity among these studies, with P = 0.734 (> 0.05).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305116.g005

Move-and-hit skills.

Only one article has studied the move-position-hit skill [ 84 ], with the primary indicators tested in this study being straight-line high net shots, full pace movement, jumping smashes, and backcourt two-point lobs. After testing, it was demonstrated that CST had a positive effect on all test indicators.

It is generally believed that core training plays a significant role in enhancing performance and preventing injuries [ 95 ]. However, our search did not uncover any research on the effect of CST on injury prevention among badminton players. This review and meta-analysis demonstrate that CST has a positive impact on muscle power, stability, balance, in-situ skills, and move-position hitting skills. Although the benefits for center field skills and move-position hitting skills are recognized and have a positive impact, the existing research lacks sufficient evidence, and there is a need for more authoritative studies. Drawing from 13 pieces of literature, this study primarily explores the effects of CST on the physical fitness and skills of badminton players. On the one hand, appropriate CST can enhance certain aspects of physical fitness. On the other hand, CST positively influences the effectiveness and stability of badminton players’ skills [ 79 ].

Studies have confirmed that CST positively impacts the stability and balance of badminton players [ 27 , 82 , 88 ]. This effect may be attributed to core strength, which involves the muscles’ ability to generate force through contractility and internal abdominal pressure [ 43 ]. It also refers to the capacity of both passive and active lumbopelvic stabilizers to maintain reliable torso and hip posture, as well as stability and control, during both static and dynamic motion [ 9 ]. Consequently, badminton players can enhance their stability through CST. Regarding dynamic balance, three studies have supported CST’s role in improving badminton players’ balance [ 79 – 81 ], indicating that CST is effective in enhancing balance. This finding is consistent with previous research on balance performance and the activation characteristics of CST [ 22 ], further solidifying its status as an intervention to improve balance [ 96 ].

We employed meta-analysis to quantitatively analyze long jump results, demonstrating that CST impacts badminton players’ explosive power positively. This improvement is likely primarily due to enhanced neural movement coordination [ 97 ]. Notably, the assessment of badminton players’ explosive power, prior to developing effective biomechanical techniques, utilized the standing long jump [ 83 , 86 , 89 , 90 ]. Furthermore, our search uncovered additional studies indicating CST’s beneficial effects on explosive power. In one study, 28 athletes were randomly divided into two groups, with both continuing their regular training for eight weeks during the intervention period. Unlike the control group, the experimental group performed a specific action 20 times per session, across three sessions with one minute of rest between each session. After the 8-week intervention, significant improvements in explosive performance were observed in participants from both groups [ 98 ].

There is currently no consensus on the effect of CST on badminton players’ muscular strength, speed, endurance, and agility, despite numerous studies underscoring the importance of understanding CST’s impact on these attributes. According to this study, the varied outcomes of CST among badminton players in terms of muscle strength, speed, endurance, and agility may stem from differences in testing methods and the durations of interventions. For instance, in muscle strength testing, a one-minute sit-up test primarily assesses abdominal muscle strength [ 89 ], a 60-second push-up test focuses on the chest muscles and triceps [ 86 ], and the test involving throwing a solid ball from a stationary position evaluates the coordination and integration of the whole body’s muscles [ 83 ]. There was no observed change in agility test results between the experimental and control groups of badminton players after six weeks of CST conducted twice weekly. However, significant improvements in agility test scores were noted for both groups following four weeks of CST conducted five times weekly [ 79 , 81 ].

The impact of CST on the flexibility and coordination of badminton players represents a research gap. However, flexibility and coordination are crucial for badminton players; for example, players need to be flexible to effectively employ the badminton smash [ 99 ]. Additionally, the level of coordination badminton players possess significantly influences their performance [ 100 ]. Therefore, future research should investigate how CST affects badminton players’ coordination and flexibility.

Effect of core strength training on skill performance

Among the effects of CST on in-situ skills, only one study demonstrated a positive effect of CST on midfield skills [ 83 ], primarily focusing on drive skills. The diverse research goals of the designers are expected to yield different results. Notably, 7 articles examined the effect of CST on in-situ skills [ 27 , 82 , 83 , 86 , 87 , 89 , 90 ]. Four studies focus on front court skills [ 27 , 83 , 86 , 89 ], including spinning net shots, lift shots, crosscourt shots, and push shots. Another four studies address backcourt skills [ 83 , 87 , 89 , 90 ], featuring drop shots, high clears, and smash skills. The meta-analysis confirms that CST has a positive impact on both badminton’s front court and in-situ backcourt skills. Thus, this study verifies that CST beneficially influences badminton players’ situational skills. Although there is no consensus on specific badminton test skills, this review and meta-analysis suggest that the selection of skills for research is contingent upon the researcher’s objectives, with different objectives leading to varied research designs.

The researchers found that badminton players significantly progressed in in-situ and on-move position hit skills after undergoing CST. This improvement may be attributed to CST’s ability to enhance the nervous system’s coordination of muscle groups, thereby improving movement efficiency and the skill performance of badminton players [ 9 ]. Hassan suggests that the positive effects of CST on the skill of test subjects could be explained by the core’s role in the movement chain and the fact that skill acquisition depends on several factors, including lower body muscular strength, leg power, skill, and the correct kinetic chain [ 9 , 48 ]. Low-intensity static core stability training, which serves as the foundation of the entire training plan, must be incorporated into core training [ 43 ]. Meanwhile, high-load dynamic CST leads to hypertrophy of muscle fibers and an increase in muscle strength [ 101 ]. The proactive role of CST in the movement chain enhances badminton players’ skills. Another factor contributing to badminton players’ skill improvement could be their enhanced stride through CST. The stride and shuttlecock movements are closely linked, with joint contact force playing a crucial role in this action. Joint contact force, the actual force exerted on the articular surface, may predict both performance and the risk of injury [ 102 ]. An intense impact occurs at heel contact during a badminton player’s repeated lunge steps [ 103 ]. Core strength significantly affects an athlete’s ability to generate and transfer forces [ 104 ]. Athletes can perform better and find it easier to respond to the shuttlecock with CST, as it provides greater control over landing on one or two feet.

A significant gap was identified across the 13 studies, with none examining a single skill across different states, such as the badminton spike, which is one of the most powerful skills in all racket sports [ 105 ]. Empirical evidence suggests that adjusting the body’s position relative to the incoming shuttlecock is crucial for producing a powerful and accurate spike [ 106 ]. However, the research has mainly focused on the badminton spot smash, which varies across different states. Moreover, only one article examined the move position hit skills [ 84 ], indicating a need for further research in this area. For instance, skills such as the smash, high clear, drive, spinning net, crosscourt, push, and lift shot have not been thoroughly studied. Badminton is currently the second most popular sport worldwide after football, with an estimated 220 million people playing it regularly, from professional to recreational levels [ 107 , 108 ]. Unfortunately, this study, through a literature review, shows that scientific research on badminton skills is less common than might be expected for such a popular sport [ 108 ]. There is a need to continue strengthening CST research to further understand its impact on badminton skill-related areas.

Limitations

Overall, this review and meta-analysis of 13 studies provide evidence that Core Stability Training (CST) positively impacts badminton players’ muscle strength, stability, balance, in-situ skills, and move-position hit skills. However, the review has several shortcomings, primarily in the areas listed below:

1. Among the 13 studies, researchers used different types of tests. When differences occurred in the studies, common indicators could only be used to find answers through meta-analysis.

2. Different training cycles, training times, and training frequencies of CST may impact athletes’ physical fitness and technical performance, but it is not easy to reach a consensus because the data is too scattered, and the emphasis of various researchers is different.

3. Due to the limited articles on the effect of CST on badminton players’ performance, only a meta-analysis was conducted on the three common research indicators of researchers.

4. This review covers studies where the paper did not specifically look at female athletes, which limits our understanding of CST’s general efficacy in improving badminton players’ performance.

5. Because the researchers’ design schemes vary, we cannot perform additional PT frequency, length, and training time analyses. Therefore, we cannot give definitive advice on the optimal intensity of badminton players’ performance.

6. Since only one researcher used dynamic CST and static CST, and other researchers used combined CST, comparing the training effects of dynamic CST and static CS on badminton players is impossible.

Conclusions

Through CST, badminton players of all ages can improve various aspects of their physical fitness, including muscle strength, power, balance, and stability, as well as in-situ skills (front-court and back-court skills) and move-position hit skills. However, the impact of CST on players’ speed, endurance, and agility has not been conclusively determined. Furthermore, the effect of CST on the flexibility and coordination of badminton players represents a significant research gap. Specifically, the influence of CST on badminton players’ physical fitness, particularly flexibility, and move-position hit skills (such as smash, high clear, drive, spinning net shot, crosscourt shot, push shot, and lift shot skills), has not been adequately studied, with a noticeable lack of research on female athletes. Therefore, further research into the impact of CST on the physical and technical performance of female athletes is warranted.

Supporting information

S1 checklist..

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305116.s001

S1 Fig. Egger’s test of CST on standing long jump.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305116.s002

S2 Fig. Egger’s test of CST on net lift.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305116.s003

S3 Fig. Egger’s test of CST on hight clear.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305116.s004

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305116.s005

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to all the authors’ contribution during the completion of this study.

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Play badminton forever: a systematic review of health benefits.

1. Introduction

2. materials and methods, 2.1. search strategy, 2.2. inclusion and exclusion criteria, 2.3. data selection, 2.4. data extraction, 2.5. assessment of study methodological quality, 3.1. database searches, 3.2. description of included studies, 3.3. findings pertaining to the characteristics of selected studies, 4. discussion, 4.1. physical health benefits, 4.2. mental health benefits, 4.3. social health benefits, 5. conclusions, author contributions, conflicts of interest.

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Cabello-Manrique, D.; Lorente, J.A.; Padial-Ruz, R.; Puga-González, E. Play Badminton Forever: A Systematic Review of Health Benefits. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022 , 19 , 9077. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19159077

Cabello-Manrique D, Lorente JA, Padial-Ruz R, Puga-González E. Play Badminton Forever: A Systematic Review of Health Benefits. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health . 2022; 19(15):9077. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19159077

Cabello-Manrique, David, Juan Angel Lorente, Rosario Padial-Ruz, and Esther Puga-González. 2022. "Play Badminton Forever: A Systematic Review of Health Benefits" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 15: 9077. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19159077

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Effect of balance training on footwork performance in badminton: An interventional study

Affiliations.

• 1 Department of Physiotherapy, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.
• 2 Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.
• 3 School of Psychological Sciences, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia.
• PMID: 36395192
• PMCID: PMC9671355
• DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0277775

Badminton is a racket sport that requires a wide variety of proficient postural changes and moves including jumps, lunges, quick changes in direction, and rapid arm movements. Efficient movement in badminton court entails reaching the shuttlecock in as few steps as possible while maintaining good balance. Balance training is an unexplored component in badminton training protocol, though balance is important in injury prevention and performance enhancement. We aimed to investigate the effectiveness of balance training on sport-specific footwork performance of school-level competitive badminton players. We conducted a controlled trial involving 20 male badminton players (age 12.85±0.67 years). Participants were stratified according to their level of performance in the game, and payers from each stratum were randomly assigned to control and intervention groups. The control group (n = 8) engaged in 2 hours of ordinary badminton training, whereas the intervention group (n = 12) underwent 30 minutes of balance training followed by 1 hour and 30 minutes of ordinary badminton training, 2 days per week for 8 weeks. We tested the participants at baseline and after 8 weeks for static balance (Unipedal Stance Test), dynamic balance (Star Excursion Balance Test) and sport-specific footwork performance (shuttle run time and push-off times during stroke-play). On pre- vs. post-intervention comparisons, both groups improved in static balance (eyes opened) (p<0.05), but only the intervention group improved in dynamic balance (p = 0.036) and shuttle-run time (p = 0.020). The intervention group also improved push-off times for front forehand (p = 0.045), side forehand (p = 0.029) and rear around-the-head shots (p = 0.041). These improvements in push-off times varied between 19-36% of the baseline. None of the footwork performance measures significantly improved in the control group. Our findings indicate that incorporating a 30-minute balance training program into a regular training schedule improves dynamic balance, and on-court sport-specific footwork performance in adolescent competitive badminton players, after 8 weeks of training.

Copyright: © 2022 Malwanage et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

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Conflict of interest statement

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Fig 1. CONSORT flow diagram of participant’s…

Fig 1. CONSORT flow diagram of participant’s selection.

When randomly assigning the participants from strata,…

Flow of the training protocol…

Flow of the training protocol in each day: (a) control group (b) intervention…

Fig 3. Pre- and post-intervention mean push-off…

Fig 3. Pre- and post-intervention mean push-off times (in milliseconds) for different badminton shots in…

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Comparison of Energy Contributions and Workloads in Male and Female Badminton Players During Games Versus Repetitive Practices

1 School of Kinesiology, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China

2 Key Laboratory of Exercise and Health Sciences of Ministry of Education, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China

Xiaoping Chen

3 China Institute of Sport Science, Beijing, China

Yongming Li

4 School of Physical Education and Sport Training, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China

Xinxin Wang

5 School of Competitive Sport, Beijing Sport University, Beijing, China

Associated Data

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

The aim of this study was to compare the energy contributions and workloads in men and women during badminton matches versus frequently used multi-ball smash practices.

Fourteen badminton players performed one badminton singles game and one session of smashing practice on separate days. The energy contributions were examined in terms of each individual’s three energy systems and substrate oxidation, while workloads included heart rate (HR), Player Load (PL), accelerations, decelerations, changes of direction, and jumps.

(1) During games, male players exhibited higher adenosine triphosphate–phosphocreatine system contribution (E PCr , kJ) ( p = 0.008) and average rate of carbohydrate oxidation (R CHO , g/min) ( p = 0.044) than female players, while female players showed greater absolute PL ( p = 0.029) and more accelerations ( p = 0.005) than male players. Furthermore, players who lost performed higher relative PL ( p = 0.017) than those who won. (2) Higher energy system contributions, including E PCr (kJ) ( p = 0.028), E HLa (kJ) ( p = 0.024), E Aer (kJ) ( p = 0.012), E Tot (kJ) ( p = 0.007), and R CHO (g/min) ( p = 0.0002), were seen in male players during repetitive spike practices. Male players also made greater number of jumps ( p = 0.0002). (3) Players exhibited higher aerobic energy contribution ( p < 0.001), mean HR ( p = 0.002), and HRmax ( p = 0.029) during games, while exhibiting greater anaerobic energy contribution ( p < 0.001) and relative PL ( p = 0.001) during repetitive practices.

The similarities between male and female badminton players in proportional use of the three energy systems during games and repetitive spike training indicate similar relative energy demands for both genders. However, considering the need for higher aerobic capacity in competition, it might be advisable to design appropriate work:rest ratios for repetitive practices in daily training.

Introduction

Badminton is a physically demanding racquet sport that involves frequent bouts of high-intensity activity, and a complex skill concerning repeated acceleration, deceleration, changes of direction (CoD), and jumps (Jum) ( Cabello and Gonzalez, 2003 ; Abdullahi et al., 2019 ). Well-trained badminton players are able to stroke using a diverse set of sport-specific techniques at varying frequencies throughout a match. To improve various kinds of stroke techniques, high-repetition practices are used extensively during daily training. However, the workload of high-repetition stroke techniques has received limited attention. A deeper understanding of the high-repetition techniques may help to develop sport-specific training programs that could enhance performance in competitive badminton. The contribution of each energy system in matches and for specific badminton skills is unclear. Previous studies exploring the energetic profile of badminton players in games showed a 60–70% aerobic-dominant profile ( Chin et al., 1995 ; Faccini and Dai Monte, 1996 ; Deka et al., 2017 ), and some scientists found the adenosine triphosphate–phosphocreatine (ATP-PCr) system (E PCr ) and the glycolysis system (E HLa ) to be the main suppliers of energy ( Li and Ling, 1997 ). However, energy contributions may be influenced by different physical loads, such as different strokes, foot movements and the frequencies with which these actions take place. Therefore, a better understanding of the badminton player’s energy contribution can only be established by investigating the energetic profile for each combination of these and similar actions.

Quantifying the physiological and physical loads imposed by competitions and training drills is vital to understanding the dose–response nature of the exercise process with regard to optimizing players’ performances. Athletic ability, gender, and posture are related to badminton injuries by understanding loading characteristics. For example, unskilled female players have been shown to be more vulnerable to lower extremity injuries ( Lam et al., 2018 ), and postures have been associated with knee injuries during badminton games ( Sasaki et al., 2018 ).

Workloads have been extensively investigated in different sports ( Garcia et al., 2019 , 2020 ; McFadden et al., 2020 ). Workloads include heart rate (HR), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), Player Load (PL), accelerations (Acc), decelerations (Dec), CoD, Jum, and so on. Although studies that quantify these loads are mostly limited to match performance or selected training periods ( Bartlett et al., 2017 ; Simpson et al., 2020 ; Taylor et al., 2020 ), the loads required in various sport-specific practices are equally important. Liu found that the player’s lower back is an ideal location for a wearable sensor capable of monitoring overall badminton external loads ( Liu et al., 2021 ). Trivial to moderate relationships have been found between internal and external match loads in male, singles badminton players ( Abdullahi et al., 2019 ). However, additional research comparing energy contributions and workloads in male and female badminton players is warranted in order to determine potential gender differences in practice strategies and recovery needs. At present, no study has compared the energy contributions and workloads in men and women during badminton matches and repetitive training.

Therefore, the main purpose of this study was to compare the energy contributions and workloads in male and female badminton players. The further aim was to describe differences of energy contributions and workloads between badminton matches and intermittent stroke practices with a 1:2 work:rest ratio.

Materials and Methods

Participants.

Fourteen healthy sub-elite badminton players who competed at the national level in their age group volunteered to participate in this study. The players stopped training 24 h before testing. They were instructed to maintain a regular diet and not to perform additional vigorous exercise during the experiment. On the day of testing, participants finished breakfast at least 1 h before reporting to the training center. All participants were medically screened to ensure no contraindications to study participation. Anthropometric and performance characteristics of these participants are presented in Table 1 . Prior to the study, the players, their coaches, and guardians were informed of the test procedures and potential risks. After having the benefits and risks explained to them, the players and their guardians provided informed written consent. Ethical approval (approval number: 20200901) was obtained from the research ethics committee of the China Institute of Sport Science, Beijing, China.

Participants’ characteristics.

Design and Procedures

The study design was cross-sectional. All participants performed one badminton singles game and one session of repetitive spike practice on separate days (both tests were conducted indoors at similar times of day: players who performed in the morning or afternoon also practiced in the morning or afternoon). Energy contributions and workloads were monitored by simultaneous gas exchange measurements, HR technology and accelerometer technology during games and practices. Before the formal test, the players performed 15 min sparring practice and dynamic stretching to warm up. After sitting still for 10 min, they put on the portable spirometry system (K4b 2 , Cosmed, Rome, Italy), HR monitor (Polar Accurex Plus, Polar Electro Inc., Kempele, Finland), and Catapult OptimEye S5 (Catapult Sports, Melbourne, VIC, Australia). Standard calibration was performed with a 3-L syringe and a standard gas with a known composition (O 2 : 15.00%, CO 2 : 5.09%), which was corrected for barometric pressure and humidity prior to the test. Players wore the abovementioned devices during the games and practice sessions. Prior to the warmup, immediately before the first set, between each set and during the recovery period following the games or practice, 10 μl of capillary blood was collected from the ear lobe to determine the blood lactate concentration (Biosen C line, EKF Diagnostic, Magdeburg, Germany). The accumulated blood lactate values were used to calculate the energy from the anaerobic lactic pathway.

Badminton Match Play

Prior to the formal test, the players were divided into seven pairs for the singles games; pairing was organized to ensure that players were of a similar skill level. They were also instructed to dress and eat as they usually would for a match. The games would follow the rules of the International Badminton Federation: three games played to 21 points; if both players score 20 points, a player must lead his or her opponent by 2 points to win. During the game, when the leading player scored 11 points, both players took a 1-min rest. Between the rounds, players had a 2-min break. The competitions were judged by a national referee. In order to make the test resemble an actual game as much as possible, the winners and losers were given different rewards as incentives. The specific test process is shown in Figure 1 .

Test flow chart of a badminton match.

Repetitive Stroke Practice

Fourteen players performed six sets of spike practice 10 times. An experienced coach was responsible for continuous serves from the other half of the court to ensure that the participants could perform the overhead stroke smoothly. After each set, the players took a break (sitting still) for twice the exercise time. The specific test process is shown in Figure 2 .

Test flow chart of multi-ball stroke practice for each player.

Energy Contributions Monitoring

The energy contributions monitored by portable spirometry included the ATP-PCr system/anaerobic alactic contribution (E PCr ), the glycolytic system/anaerobic lactic energy contribution (E HLa ), the oxidative system/aerobic energy contribution (E Aer ), the total energy contribution (E Tot ), the average rate of carbohydrate oxidation (R CHO ), and the average rate of lipid oxidation (R Lip ). Calculations of the average energy contributions and energy costs were made using gas exchange data that were recorded during the test and rest periods.

Calculation of the energy system’s contributions

To estimate the energy expenditure of all tests, the sum of the contributions of the three energy systems was determined in accordance with the methodology used by other studies in sports ( di Prampero, 1981 ; Davis et al., 2014 ; Julio et al., 2017 ; Li et al., 2018 , 2020 ):

• (1) The ATP-PCr system contribution was shown as E PCr and estimated using the first 3-min fast phase of the V . O 2 after exercise (games or practices), with a caloric equivalent of 0.021131 kJ/ml at respiratory exchange ratio >1.0. The first 3-min slow phase of the V . O 2 was determined by using an approximated exponential equation estimated from a non-linear fitting procedure. The equation was derived from the actual V . O 2 of the second 3 min after exercise.
• (2) The glycolytic system contribution, shown as anaerobic lactic energy contribution (E HLa ), was calculated from the accumulated blood lactate during the test (maximal value subtracted resting value) with the O 2 -lactate equivalent of 3.0 ml/mM/kg (assuming that the accumulation of 1 mM in lactate was equivalent to 3 ml O 2 per kilogram of body mass). Resting blood lactate was the value before warmup and maximal blood lactate was the largest of all values.
• (3) The oxidative system contribution, shown as aerobic energy contribution (E A er ), was calculated from the accumulated V . O 2 during test above resting levels, with a caloric equivalent of 0.021131 kJ/ml at respiratory exchange ratio >1.0. Rest levels were defined as 4.0 ml/min/kg for males and 3.5 ml/min/kg for females in a standing posture. Total V . O 2 during exercises (games or practices) was calculated from the portable spirometry system and expressed in milliliters.
• (4) The total energy expenditure (E T ol ) was computed as the sum of E PCr , E HLa , and E A er . In addition, the contributions of the three energy systems were expressed as a percenage of the total energy expenditure.

Calculation of substrate oxidation

Substrate oxidation was estimated for the interval session, including work and rest periods. Carbohydrate and lipid oxidation rates were calculated by the non-protein respiratory quotient ( Peronnet and Massicotte, 1991 ; Pettersson et al., 2019 ), Oxygen consumption ( V . O 2 ) and carbon dioxide production ( V . CO 2 ) were expressed in liters per minute (L/min) and oxidation rate in grams per minute (g/min):

Workloads Monitoring

The workload variables used in this study were HR, absolute PL, relative PL, Acc, Dec, CoD (left and right), and Jum. A 10-Hz GPS device fitted with a 100-Hz triaxial accelerometer, gyroscope, and magnetometer (OptimEye S5, Catapult Sports, Melbourne, VIC, Australia) was securely positioned between the participant’s scapulae using a custom-made vest. The device firmware version was 7.40. The data were processed by the manufacturer’s software (OpenField, v1.21.1, Catapult Sports, Melbourne, VIC, Australia). The numbers of Acc, Dec, CoD, and Jum and CoD, including both left turns (CoD left) and right turns (CoD right), were measured by the device’s inertial sensors, throughout the test. (Data between sets were excluded). Absolute PL was defined as the sum of the acceleration vectors as assessed through the accelerometer (Catapult OptimEye S5) in three axes (lateral, vertical, and anterior/posterior). Relative PL was determined as PL per minute in each period. Both absolute PL and relative PL were measured in arbitrary units (au). The PL variable demonstrated strong validity and reliability indices to assess the neuromuscular load of each referee, and the corresponding value was calculated through the following equation:

where X refers to acceleration in the medial–lateral direction, Y refers to vertical acceleration, and Z represents acceleration from the anterior-to-posterior direction. Time is represented by t and n refers to number.

Statistical Analyses

Statistical analyses were conducted using the IBM SPSS statistical software (version 25.0, IBM Corporation, Armonk, NY, United States). Results were expressed as means ± standard deviations (SD). The Shapiro–Wilk test was used to assess normality. Comparisons between male and female players as well as players who won their matches compared with the losing players were carried out using independent-sample t -tests if data satisfied normal distribution. Otherwise, non-parametric test (Mann–Whitney U test) was used to compare groups. Significance level was set at p < 0.05.

Results of Energy Contributions and Workloads During Game

The 14 players played a total of seven games. Six matches reached two rounds; only one game (female) had three rounds. The average match duration was 24.93 ± 6.33 min. Statistics for the energy contributions and workloads are presented in Table 2 . According to non-parametric distributions, only the comparisons of absolute PL (AU) and decelerations ( n ) between men and women and the comparisons of E PCr (%), relative PL (AU), and jumps ( n ) between victory and defeat used an on-parametric test (Mann–Whitney U test); other variables used independent-sample t -tests. There were statistically significant differences in E PCr (kJ), R CHO (g/min), absolute PL, and accelerations ( n ) between male and female players ( p < 0.05). Male players exhibited higher anaerobic alactic capacity ( p = 0.008) and average rate of carbohydrate oxidation ( p = 0.044) than female players. The female players showed greater workloads in absolute PL ( p = 0.029) and number of accelerations ( p = 0.005) compared with their male counterparts. No other significant gender differences were seen during a match. Furthermore, defeated players exhibited a higher relative PL than winners ( p = 0.017).

Descriptive results of energy contributions and workloads during a badminton match.

Results of Energy Contributions and Workloads During Repetitive Stroke Practice

The average spike training session was 11.4 ± 0.45 min. No significant difference in duration was seen between male and female players. Descriptive statistics of energy contributions and training load-related results are presented in Table 3 . Only comparisons of E PCr (%), accelerations ( n ), decelerations ( n ), CoD Left ( n ), and CoD Right ( n ) between men and women used an on-parametric test (Mann–Whitney U test), because these data exhibited non-parametric distributions, and other variables used independent-sample t -tests. Higher energy system contributions, including E PCr (kJ) ( p = 0.028), E HLa (kJ) ( p = 0.024), E Aer (kJ) ( p = 0.012), E Tot (kJ) ( p = 0.007), and R CHO (g/min) ( p = 0.0002), were seen in male players; there was no difference in the percentages of the three energy systems. Male players accumulated a significantly greater number of jumps ( p = 0.0002) during multi-ball spike practices, but no differences in other training load variables were seen between genders.

Descriptive results of energy contributions and workloads during stroke practices.

Differences in Energy Contributions and Workloads Between Game and Repetitive Stroke Practice

Comparisons of energy contributions and workloads in single-player games and multi-ball spike training are presented in Table 4 . Only some indicators (those less influenced by duration) were selected. Since data exhibited non-parametric distributions, comparisons of E HLa (%), E Aer (%), and R CHO (g/min) between games and stroke practices used an on-parametric test (Mann–Whitney U test); other variables used independent-sample t -tests. Among these indicators, players exhibited higher E PCr (%) ( p = 0.00003) and E HLa (%) ( p < 0.001) during repetitive spike training, and higher aerobic energy contribution ( p < 0.001) during games. Higher mean HR ( p = 0.002) and max HR ( p = 0.029) were found during games, but greater relative PL ( p = 0.001) was seen in multi-ball spike training.

Differences of energy contributions and workloads between games and practices.

Badminton matches last around 28–78 min (10–21 min/round) and are fast paced with intermittent moments. The duration of a single bout is about 6–12 s, and the number of shots in a bout is around 5–12 strokes ( Faude et al., 2007 ; Abián-Vicén et al., 2013 ; Abian et al., 2014 ; Gawin et al., 2015 ; Laffaye et al., 2015 ; Kah Loon and Krasilshchikov, 2016 ; Savarirajan, 2016 ). These bouts involve multiple accelerations, decelerations, CoD, and jumps, which can raise one’s HR to 95% of its maximum level (HRmax) ( Gawin et al., 2015 ; Laffaye et al., 2015 ; Abdullahi and Coetzee, 2017 ). However, the workloads and average intensity are not very high over the entire duration of a match due to the occurrence of low-intensity intervals between bouts, which is characterized by 72.6–74.8% . ⁢ V . O 2 max, 70–85% HRmax, and 1.98–4.6 mM blood lactate concentration ( Majumdar et al., 1997 ; Cabello and Gonzalez, 2003 ; Faude et al., 2007 ; Sung, 2016 ). Other studies have revealed that the energy consumption is significantly greater in singles matches when compared with doubles matches and that these differences are not related to a player’s gender ( Lee, 2013 ). Similar to the findings of the present study, gender differences in activity patterns induced only slightly different physiological responses ( Fernandez et al., 2013 ). Our investigation explored the energy contributions and workloads in male and female badminton players: while the similarities in proportional use of the three energy systems between male and female badminton players during games and training sessions indicate similar relative energy demands for both genders, male players showed higher E PCr (kJ) during games and greater energy contributions, including E PCr (kJ), E HLa (kJ), E Aer (kJ), and E Tot (kJ), during spike practices than female players. At the same time, male players had a higher average rate of carbohydrate oxidation during games and repetitive practice sets. This suggests that players (especially males) should enhance carbohydrate supplementation during competition and high-intensity training. Additionally, female players showed greater workloads in absolute PL and the number of accelerations compared with male players, while male players accumulated a significantly greater number of jumps during spike practices. No other differences in workload variables between genders were observed. In contract to the present study, Rojas-Valverde et al. (2020) found gender-related differences in maximum accelerations, relative accelerations, and relative distance during games. This is most likely related to the monitoring equipment’s method of generating statistics for jumping: the equipment used in this study only recorded jumps when both feet were off the ground simultaneously at a certain vertical height; it did not record as jumps those movements in which only one foot left the ground or when one foot left the ground, then the other. The different jumping styles and heights between genders likely explain the difference in the number of jumps recorded. Differences in workloads between this study and other studies may be related to the dissimilarities in type, intensity, and duration of the activities involved ( Ghosh et al., 1990 , 1993 ; Chin et al., 1995 ; Faude et al., 2007 ; Aydogmus, 2015 ; Deka et al., 2017 ). For instance, the frequency and movement pattern during an overhead stroke may differ between players ( Sasaki et al., 2020 ) while lunging during underhand strokes on the dominant hand side leg had greater mediolateral acceleration than other movements ( Nagano et al., 2020 ).

The importance of the aerobic energy supply in badminton was underestimated in some studies, which observed that 60–70% energy is contributed by the aerobic system and approximately 30% by the anaerobic system, with greater demand on the anaerobic alactic metabolism than the lactic anaerobic metabolism ( Phomsoupha and Laffaye, 2015 ). The results of this study, which observed that almost 95% energy is contributed by the aerobic system, pointed to the need for a higher aerobic capacity in competitive badminton players. Daily training should be designed to further develop a sufficient endurance capacity.

Furthermore, there are great differences in the proportions of the three energy systems between competition and the intermittent spike training with a 1:2 work:rest ratio. Players exhibited higher aerobic energy contribution during games, and higher anaerobic energy contribution during spike training. This suggests that we should put particular emphasis on the aerobic ability of badminton players and that a larger intermittent work:rest ratio of each repetitive drill should be considered. Integrated training programs should be conducted to combine physical demands with decision-making demands. Aerobic assessment using indirect calorimetry is impractical on the court due to the burden of wearing portable metabolic devices. Some coaches use V . O 2 max to distinguish players’ levels, but Ooi observed that V . O 2 max may not discriminate elite badminton players from sub-elite counterparts, suggesting that tactical knowledge and psychological readiness could be more important for elite athletes ( Ooi et al., 2009 ). We suggest that players at different levels of expertise should undertake different training regimens, with different work:rest ratios and overall durations. Given that HR monitoring may not provide accurate data on the energetic demands for badminton players, an indirect calorimetry test on court to assess energetic demands would be more precise ( Rampichini et al., 2018 ). Nevertheless, the results from laboratory treadmill testing seem to be a poor predictor of a player’s ability, compared to their game play performance ( Heller, 2010 ).

The present study’s limitations include a lack of repeated match and training data and the relatively small sample size. Future research into both energy contributions and workloads derived from laboratory experiments is warranted in order to understand the relative differences in workloads of each player. The need for additional research also applies to the determination of sprint classifications specific to badminton, as well as game-specific CoD or acceleration.

Consequently, we encourage measuring these activities both in future research and during practices throughout the sports season. Future studies should expand our knowledge of energy contributions and workloads in routine badminton drills, including spike training with different work:rest ratios and other combinations of badminton techniques. Additionally, this study should be made of badminton players at different levels of expertise.

Applications and Conclusion

Our findings highlight the similarities in proportional use of the three energy systems between male and female badminton players throughout competition and repetitive spike training. Players (especially males) should enhance carbohydrate supplementation during competition and high-intensity training in accordance with the higher carbohydrate oxidation rate observed.

Study results suggest that there are important differences in the contributions of the three energy systems between competition and repetitive spike training. Considering the need for higher aerobic capacity in competition, it may be practical for badminton coaches and athletes to choose appropriate intermittent work:rest ratio in this technique during high-repetition practices. We suggest that players at different competitive levels should undertake training regimens of different work:rest ratios and overall durations.

Monitoring and quantifying energy contributions and workloads during matches and training are indispensable for determining individualized training regimes. Training programs should be adjusted according to specific competitive characteristics in accordance with the demands of different sports. Wearable technologies are an efficient method for monitoring workloads throughout the season in order to help enhance players’ performances.

Data Availability Statement

Ethics statement.

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of China Institute of Sport Science, China. Written informed consent to participate in this study was provided by the participants’ legal guardian/next of kin.

Author Contributions

YL and XC contributed to conception and design of the study. YL, BL, and XC designed the study. XW and LS collected the data. XW and YF conducted the analyses. YF and YS wrote the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank all the volunteers who took part in this study that were supported by Nanjing Sport Institute, Shanghai University of Sport and China Institute of Sport Science. We gratefully appreciate all the volunteers who participated in this study.

Funding. This work was supported by the China Institute of Sport Science (Basic17-30) and National Key Research and Development Program of China (2018YFF0300500).

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BadmintonDB: A Badminton Dataset for Player-specific Match Analysis and Prediction

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Bibliometrics & citations, supplementary material.

• Seong M Kim G Yeo D Kang Y Yang H DelPreto J Matusik W Rus D Kim S (2024) MultiSenseBadminton: Wearable Sensor–Based Biomechanical Dataset for Evaluation of Badminton Performance Scientific Data 10.1038/s41597-024-03144-z 11 :1 Online publication date: 5-Apr-2024 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41597-024-03144-z
• Jain A Agrawal S Chauhan G Shruti I Singh P (2024) Badminton Shot Recognition with LSTM Network The Future of Artificial Intelligence and Robotics 10.1007/978-3-031-60935-0_28 (307-315) Online publication date: 20-Aug-2024 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-60935-0_28

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Computing methodologies

Artificial intelligence

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Search Results

BWF provides the opportunity for research institutions and individuals to apply for research grants to assist in the funding of applied sports science research in badminton.

The BWF Sports Science Commission has three key goals and the research grants assist in achieving these goals:

• To encourage and widen interest and investment in applied research in Badminton.
• To improve the level and quantity of scientific material available to players, coaches and badminton practitioners.
• To contribute towards the increased knowledge of performance and safety at the international level – of coaches and players.

List of BWF research projects 

Biomechanics, consistency in the badminton jump smash, abdurrahman et al._loughborough university.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the difference in strategy and technique adopted in the badminton jump smash between players of differing levels of performance outcome variability.

Determining Instantaneous Shuttlecock Velocity: Overcoming the Effects of a Low Ballistic Coefficient

Naylor et al._loughborough university.

The purpose of this study was to develop a method for accurate determination of post-impact instantaneous shuttlecock velocity as well as the identification of racquet-shuttlecock contact timing for the badminton jump smash.

Optimum Performance in the Badminton Jump Smash

Miller et al._loughborough university.

The purpose of this study was to identify the technique factors that contribute to players producing high shuttlecock velocities, with the aim of being able to inform coaches what to encourage in players when coaching, or recognise during the talent identification process.

Explorative Study on Muscle Strength and Muscle Strength Ratios in Top National and International Badminton Players

Felder et al._olympic training center rhineland palatinate saarland.

This aim of this study was to obtain an overview of the muscular strength ratios and the strength values of the key badminton-specific muscle groups.

Analysis of the Short Serve in Badminton and Training to Improve the Short Serve

Wilkie et al._edith cowan university.

This research aimed to investigate the movement patterns associated with the accuracy-based skill of the short serve, and; understand how elite players vary their movement when performing the short serve. Additionally, a training program was developed and implemented aimed at improving short serve accuracy and the effectiveness of this training intervention was assessed.

The Effect of Strengthening the Muscles of the Foot on Common Ligament Injury Mechanism in Females Participating in Court Sports

Van der merwe et al._massey university.

The aim of this project is therefor to investigate the effect that footwear condition and strengthening specific muscles acting on the will have on the injury mechanism associated with ACL and lateral ankle sprain injuries.

Changes in Explosive Strength After Badminton Match Play and Relationship with Injury

Girard et al._murdoch university.

The aim of this study was to assess the time course of changes in maximal and rapid muscle torque production capacity of plantar flexors (PF) and dorsi flexors (DF) in response to badminton match play.

Comparison of Joint Loading in Badminton Lunging between Professional and Amateur Badminton Players

Fu et al._ningbo university and university of the west of scotland.

The aim of this study was to investigate the kinematic motion and kinetic loading differences of the right knee and ankle while performing a maximal right lunge.

Lunge Position Analysis of Men's Single Badminton Player by Kinematics and Kinetics Analysis

Adiprawita et al._institut teknologi bandung.

This study aimed to analyze the lunges position mechanism and use to predict the likelihood of back pain injury caused by fatigue.

An exploratory investigation of patellofemoral joint loadings during directional lunges in badminton

Yu et al._loudi vocational and technical college.

This project was aimed to reveal the knee joint kinematics and kinetics and investigate the contact force and cartilage von Mises stress via subject-specific musculoskeletal modelling analysis and finite element simulation based on the medical images.

Spatial Speed-Accuracy Trade-Off in International Badminton Players Performing the Forehand Smash

Afzal et al._loughborough university.

The purpose of the study was to identify and compare any emergent SATO relationships utilised by international badminton players performing the forehand smash, under two spatio-temporal conditions.

Adjusted Landing Technique Reduces the Load on the Achilles Tendon in Badminton Players

Kaldau et al._copenhagen university hospital.

The study aimed to investigate if recreational players could reduce the load in the AT when adopting the SKJ technique compared to their habitual landing technique with the foot in a neutral position and secondarily to compare the AT force between recreational players and elite players.

Workflow assessing the effect of Achilles tendon rupture on gait function and metatarsal stress: Combined musculoskeletal modeling and finite element analysis

Sun et al._ningbo university.

The purpose of the current research is to develop a methodology that could improve the finite element model derived foot internal stress prediction for ATR clinical and rehabilitation applications.

Intelligent prediction of lower extremity loadings during badminton lunge footwork in a lab-simulated court

Yu et al._ningbo university.

This project was aimed to investigate, estimate, and monitor the knee and ankle joint loadings of badminton athletes from lab test with ‘gold-standard’ facilities to on-court intelligent analysis.

Overhead position analysis of men's singles badminton player by kinematics and kinetics analysis

The aim of this study is to examine the effect of overhead movement on ground reaction force (GRF), moment, and power in ankle, elbow, hip, knee during landing phase with two conditions (normal and fatigue conditions).

Modelling badminton movement for injury prevention and performance enhancement

Mangera et al._university of witwatersrand.

The study aims to evaluate the injury risk associated with various landing techniques following a jump smash, namely toe- fi rst landing, fl at-footed landing and heel fi rst landing.

Principal Component Analysis of the Running Ground Reaction Forces With Different Speeds

This study was aimed to investigate the variances of GRFs in rearfoot striking runners across incremental speeds.

Influence of Torsional Stiffness in Badminton Footwear on Lower Limb Biomechanics

Shen et al._ningbo university.

This study aimed to comprehensively investigate the influence of three different levels of torsional stiffness in badminton shoes on biomechanical characteristics, sports performance, and injury risk in badminton players.

This study aimed to analyse the dose–response effect of incremental wedge hardness on typical badminton footwork.

Impact of Eight Weeks of Plyometric Training on Jump Parameters in Junior Badminton Players

Frohlich et al._saarland university, institute for sport science.

The aim of the study was to investigate the effects of an eight-week periodized PT program on jumping height, agility and power among male and female junior badminton players, using high-impact bilateral plyometric exercises.

Effect of Carbohydrate and Caffeine Ingestion on Badminton Performance Following Fatiguing Exercise

Clarke et al._coventry university.

The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of ingesting carbohydrate and caffeine on measures that are central to success in badminton.

Neuromuscular Fatigue Following a Singles Badminton Match

Lin et al._edith cowan university.

The aim of this study was to investigate changes in knee extensor neuromuscular function after a simulated 1 hour badminton singles match in relation to the number of lunges performed in the match.

Physiological Profile and Energy Expenditure of High Level Badminton Players

Esposito et al._università degli studi di milano.

The aims of this study were: (i) to compare the HR–̇2 relationship determined on the field during badminton-specific tasks to that found in the laboratory during a standard treadmill test.

Badminton Specific Fitness Training Improves Badminton Performance and Reduces Body Fat in Danish College Students – A Comparison of Regular High School Badminton and Specific Badminton Fitness Training

Madsen et al._university of copenhagen.

The aim of the study was to investigate a newly developed Danish Badminton Fitness concept (B-FIT) investigating health related markers and specific badminton performance among Danish high school students, some recreationally active but none involved in regular badminton activities, compared to a standard high school 8-week badminton program (BAD).

The Effect Badminton Specific Exercise on Badminton Serve Performance in Competition and Practice Climates

Duncan et al._coventry university.

This study examined the effects of changes in physiological and psychological arousal on badminton short and long serve performance in competitive and practice climates.

Metabolic and Hormonal Responses, and Fluid and Electrolyte Status Following Badminton Matches in Junior Players: Implications for Player Recovery

Ramachandran_kannur university.

The purpose of the study is to investigate the metabolic and hormonal responses, and fluid and electrolyte status following badminton matches.

Impact of Several Consecutive Matches in a Day on Physical Performance in Elite Junior Badminton Players

Fernandez-fernandez et al._university of león.

The aim of this study was to analyze the effects of playing several badminton matches (one singles and one doubles) on the same day on physical performance in elite junior players, during an international junior championship.

The Effectiveness of the BWF Shuttle Time programme on children’s fundamental movement skills

This study study studyaddresses this thisissueissue issue by thethe impact impactimpactof the Badminton Badminton WorldWorld World Federation’s Federation’s Federation’s Federation’s Federation’s Federation’s ‘Shuttle ‘Shuttle ‘Shuttle Time’ Time’ programme, programme, programme, programme,programme, aschool school and badminton badminton badminton badmintonbased based FMS intervention, intervention, intervention, intervention, intervention, intervention,on body bodymass massindex index index(BMI) and motor motorcompetence competence competence competence (MC) in British British children children children children.

Physiological Characteristics of Men's Double Badminton Players

Aprianto et al._institut teknologi bandung.

This study aimed to examine the physiological characteristics of Indonesian Badminton young players and to use the findings to plan training with greater precision

Does ischemic pre-conditioning during the recovery period between two successive matches preserve physical performance in badminton doubles players?

Girard et al._university of western australia, the effect of perceptual training with anxiety on the anticipatory judgments of elite badminton players, alder et al._liverpool john moores university.

The aim of this study was to examine the training of anticipation in badminton using video simulation under anxious conditions and the transfer of learning to high anxiety conditions and the field.

Quantifying the Role of Anticipation in Badminton during Competition; The Impact of Situational Constraints, Game Format, Match Stage and Outcome of Match

Alder et al._leeds becket university.

This project aimed to identify: (a) the average response time of elite level badminton players, (b) the frequency of anticipatory behaviours which occur in elite level badminton and (c) how contextual factors such as format of the game (i.e. women’s, men’s, singles and doubles matches), the outcome of the match (i.e. win, lose), and the stage of the match (i.e. set 1, set 2) impact on both average response time and frequency of anticipatory behaviours.

The Impact of Physiological Stress on Performance Effectiveness and Processing Efficiency in a video-based badminton-anticipation task: From Testing to Training

This project aimed to identify: (a) the impact of badminton-specific physiological stress on perceptual-cognitive anticipation in badminton, and key underlying mechanisms,  (b) the effects of combining anticipation training in badminton with high physiological stress to see if there are any benefits of training under stressors that are common to the performance environment .

Do You Feel What I Feel? The Developmental Psychobiosocial States in Competitive Badminton

Chia-smith_loyola university maryland.

This study examines the extent to which psychobiosocial states of elite badminton players vary by age.

An Investigation of the Demands Faced and Support Needed by Elite Dual Career Adolescent Badminton Players and Their Entourage

Sellars et al._cardiff metropolitan university.

This study aims to (1) Describe the demands and challenges dual career adolescent badminton players and their entourage faced throughout a badminton season; (2) Identify the most demanding periods for players throughout a badminton season; (3) Explore the support needs of dual career badminton players and their entourage during these demanding periods.

Psychological Factors Associated with Injuries in Badminton

Broadbent et al._brunel university.

This explorative study had three main aims (1) to examine the differences in psychological factors between badminton players, of all skill levels, who had experienced an injury in the last 24 months and those that had not been injured;  (2) to examine the relationship between number of injuries that a player had sustained and psychological factors; (3) to examine whether the psychological factors associated with injuries altered depending on the type of injury, the body region effected, and the cause of the injury.

The Validity and Reliability of an Established Series of Badminton-Specific Field Tests

Hughes et al._cardiff metropolitan university.

The aim of this study was to investigate the reliability and validity of the test procedures used over the last fifteen years in the assessment of fitness in English Junior Badminton players.

Development of an Agility Test for Badminton Players and Assessment of Its Validity, Reliability, and Specificity

Louriero et al._cruzeiro do sul university.

The aims of this research project were (1) to develop a new agility test that assess both the perceptual and motor capacity, (2) to examine the test’s concurrent and construct validity and its test-retest reliability, and (3) to evaluate the specificity of this test to badminton players.

The impact of badminton lessons on health and wellness of young adults with intellectual disabilities: a pilot study

Chen et al._mississippi state university, anticipation in young badminton players, carvalho3 et al..

Differences between real and virtual tasks and the influence of playing and training experience.

The Effect of Eight-Week Swiss Ball Training on the Integration of Functional Movements and Balance of Teenage Badminton Players

Saberian amirkolaei et al _ allameh tabataba’i university.

Although injuries are an inevitable part of sports, exercise as a tool to prevent sports-related injuries and their consequences has caught the attention of many researchers in recent years. The present study aims to evaluate the effect of 8 weeks of Swiss ball training on the integration of functional movement of teenage badminton players and their balance.

Medicine & Sport Injuries

Acute and overuse injuries in european junior badminton players, petrinovic et al _ school of kinesiology.

The main aim of this study was to investigate the frequency, location and severity of acute and overuse injuries in junior badminton players, aged under 19 years old (17-19 years). the most common sites of injury were also studied. the correlation between their anthropometric status, foot alignment and injury was examined. in addition, differences in explosive strength between  the injured and non-injured junior badminton players was evaluated.

Influence of Badminton Exercises on Prevention and Treatment of Myopia

National badminton federation of russia.

The Badminton Against Myopia Project began in 2013 with the aim of reducing the number of school-age children that suffer from or are at risk of myopic eye disease globally.

Training and injuries among world elite junior badminton players – Identifying the problems

Niels christian kaldau et al _ sports orthopedic research center - copenhagen, department of orthopedic surgery.

The game of badminton has evolved since the early injury epidemiology studies. Since there is no published literature on injuries in elite junior badminton players from an international cohort, this study provides an updated reference of injuries in this population to inform future injury prevention strategies. The objective of this study was to report injury prevalence and training hours in elite junior badminton players participating at the World Junior Championships in 2018.

Hip Profile in World Elite Junior Badminton Players: Impingement and Range of Motion Data from the World Junior Badminton Championship 2018

Badminton is played with repetitive high loading to the hip with lunging and jumps. Early hip replacements in former elite badminton players due to OA seem to be a problem. There are no published values for ROM and impingement of the hip in badminton. The purpose is to report ROM and impingement of the hip in elite junior badminton players and to report any differences between sex and ethnicities.

Mechanism for shoulder pain and injury in elite badminton players

Zhou et al _ the university of tokyo.

T o detect the mechanisms for shoulder pain and injury during forehand overhead stroke using the questionnaire and 2D video analysis

A lateral ankle sprain during a lateral backward step in badminton: A case report of a televised injury incident

Fong et al _ loughborough university.

This study presents a kinematic analysis of an acute lateral ankle sprain incurred during a televised badminton match. The kinematics of this injury were compared to those of 19 previously reported cases in the published literature

IndEsPrev: A prospective, international, injury prevention study

Navandar et al _ loughborough university.

This study aimed (1) to analyze the influence of a 15-min game on the physical performance in men and women badminton players on measures of jump, agility, and flexibility performance variation after the match; and (2) to compare differences between young, elite male and female badminton players in the discrete and continuous variables registered using Linear Position Transducers during the squat and bench press.

Development of the shoulder joint screening test criteria to prevent shoulder pain in Japanese Badminton Players

Warashina_ tokyo keizai university.

The main research question in this study is that “Where the cut-off value would be in the shoulder joint flexibility of badminton players with shoulder pain?”. Establishing the shoulder joint flexibility cut-off value would be useful to detect and prevent further severe injuries for badminton players.

Examining injury prevalence in the world of badminton. A study of engagement, exposure and injury

Alder et al_ leeds beckett university.

This project will identify relationships between player practice history, perceived coach leadership styles and the experience of injury burden and dropout in badminton.

Assessing the Association of Shoulder Pain Risk with Physical Fitness in Badminton Players at National Tournament Level

This study aimed to identify the association of shoulder pain with physical fitness in elite university badminton players participating in the national tournament via medical check-ups.

Knee Joint Loading of Scissor-Kick Jump Landings: A Comparison Between Elite and Recreational Badminton Player

Nedergaard et al _ copenhagen university hospital.

The purpose of this study was to compare the knee joint kinematics and kinetics of elite and recreational male badminton players during scissor-kick jump landings.

Performance Analysis

Qualitative temporal structure and performance in badminton competition, abstract_rivas et al._university of madrid.

The aim of the study was to show that the both the temporal structure of badminton and the outcome, for both men and women are influenced by the relative quality between the players as well as other variables such as, match status, score and game period.

Performance Structure Analysis of the men's and women's badminton doubles matches in the Olympic Games from 2008 to 2016

Abián-vicén et al._badminton federation of castilla-la mancha.

The purpose of this study was to compare the timing factors and notational structure of top world level badminton in men’s and women’s doubles matches among the Olympic Games in Beijing, London and Rio to observe the evolution of this sport between 2008 and 2016 .

Design, Validation, and Reliability of an Observational Instrument for Technical and Tactical Actions in Singles Badminton

Torres-luque et al._university of jaén.

The main objective of this research was to design, validate, and estimate the reliability of an observational instrument for the analysis of the tactical and technical actions in individual badminton.

Effect of Scaling Task Constraints on the Learning Processes of Under-11 Badminton Players during Match-Play

Ortega-toro et al._ university of murcia.

The purpose of the study is to analyze the incidence of reducing the court size (from 13.40 m × 5.18 m to 11.88 m × 5.18 m) and net height (from 1.55 m to 1.30 m) for under-11 badminton players on the following technical and tactical variables: (a) service area; (b) stroke effectiveness; (c) kinds of technical strokes; (d) players’ hitting area; (e) shuttle landing area; (f) shuttle flight; and (g) rally length.

Physical Activity & Well-being

The impact of badminton on health markers in sedentary females., patterson et al._st marys university.

Thus the purpose of the study was to examine the effect of regular participation in recreational badminton in untrained women throughout an eight week intervention and compare it with a similar period of running.

AirBadminton for physical activity and well-being: post-covid19

Perez-turpin et al._university of alicante.

The main objective of the study is to analyze the suitability of Airbadminton on the acquired sports commitment and the classroom climate generated through the practice of Airbadminton

Badminton improves neuromotor skills and functioning: Encouraging sports among older adults of United Arab Emirates

Hazari_gulf medical university.

The study aims to analyse the effects of Badminton on Cardiovascular & Neuromuscular function among older adults with and without noncommunicable disease in United Arab Emirates.

Does badminton participation contribute to holistic health benefits among recreational players

Ong et al._tunku abdul rahman university of management and technology.

The present study employs a holistic approach towards understanding the wellness benefits of playing badminton among recreational players, which involve examining the physical health status and investigating the perception of health benefits (i.e., physical, psychological, emotional and social aspects) acquired from badminton participation.

Para Badminton

Qualitative analysis of para-badminton's psycophysical and social impact, alberti et al._university of rome torvergata.

The purpose of this scientific research was to qualitatively assess the benefits reported by the practice of Para-Badminton in physics, psychological and social.

Are Technical and Timing Components in Para-Badminton Classifications Different?

Strapasson_federal university of rio grande do sul.

The purpose of this research is to investigate the frequency of technical components and timing characteristics in the PBd categories of WH1(Wheelchair/severe impairment) and WH2 (Wheelchair/minor impairment) and to compare between classes.

Physiological and metabolic responses of parabadminton athletes to field simulated effort according to functional classification and court size

Oliveira et al._federal university of pernambuco.

The present investigation aimed to identify the physiological and metabolic responses in Para badminton athletes, according to functional classification and court size.

Developmental and Professional Activities of Elite Badminton Players

Ford et al._liverpool john moores university.

The aim of this research was to examine the amount and types of developmental and professional activities engaged in by elite badminton players in European and Malaysia and the association to attainment and skill acquisition.

Player development systems in the performance pathway in four world-leading badminton nations

Julian north et. al._leeds beckett university.

A literature review and interviews with experts from Indonesia, Korea, Denmark and Spain.

Facilitating dual career badminton players’ life skills development through the education of their entourage

Dohme et. al._cardiff metropolitan university.

The current study has  two objectives. First, to understand the knowledge and use of life skills of adolescent badminton players and their entourage (parents/guardians and badminton staff) within a badminton setting. Second, to develop and evaluate an online educational program aimed at enhancing entourage members’ knowledge of, and ability to promote dual career badminton players’ life skills development.

Coaching Needs for Badminton Players with Intellectual Disability

Khoo et. al._universiti malaya.

This research aimed to identify the needs of coaches and badminton players with intellectual disability. Badminton was chosen because of the sport’s increasing popularity among persons with intellectual disability

Badminton: A model for promoting well-being and livelihood in a slum community in Winneba Municipality

Acheampong et. al._university of education, winneba.

This research examines air badminton activities as a model to promote well-being and livelihood among young people in low-income communities.

Automated Service Height Fault Detection Using Computer Vision and Machine Learning for Badminton Matches

Goh et. al._nanyang technological university.

This research aim to develop an automatic service height fault detection system using computer vision and object detection techniques to allow for real-time electronic service fault judging.

Bibliometric analysis of scientific production in badminton

Blanca-torres et. al._ university of jaén.

The aim of the present study was to analyse the scientific production in the sport of badminton.

List of Member Association research projects 

The relationship between social solidity and sustainable development in badminton from the perspective of the country's elites, ghadimi et al._islamic azad university.

The purpose of this study is to explain the relationship between social cohesion and sustainable development in badminton from the perspective of the country’s elites.

Sustainable Development and Solidarity (Case Study of Iran Badminton Elites)

The purpose of this study is to investigate the foundations of society on sustainable and cognitive development of solidarity from the perspective of the country’s Badminton elites

The Role of Women’s Sports Participation on the Socially Anomalous Behaviors in Racket Sports

Madadi et al._islamic azad university.

The purpose of this study is to explain the motivation of women’s sports participation on the tendency to socially anomalous behaviors in racket sports.

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